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OVERVIEW OF THE MORNING Overview of Human Learning From Epistemology to Psychology Behavioral Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Dogs Operant Conditioning: Thorndike’s Cats and Skinner’s Rats Theory to Practice Behaviorism in the Classroom Components and Implications Social Learning and Social Cognitive Theory Read Module 10 WHAT IS LEARNING? “Learning is an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience” (Schunk, 2004, p. 2). “Learning occurs when experience causes a relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge or behavior” (Woolfolk, 2007, p. 206). “Any relatively permanent change in an organism that results from experience” (Me, Now, Here). What are the three criteria common in these definitions? TWO DOMINANT CAMPS OF CONTEMPORARY LEARNING THEORIES Behaviorism Cognitvism Learning involves the… thoughtless conditioning thoughtful construction of S-R/R-S associations of knowledge Causing changes in … observable behavior internal mental structures Reinforcers and punishers… strengthen and weaken provide information response associations and motivation Research focuses on… animals to find general laws of learning human development and learning in many contexts GUIDING QUESTIONS What are the similarities and differences between classical and instrumental conditioning? In what ways have you been conditioned? What are some of ways that students get conditioned at school? BEHAVIORAL VIEWS OF LEARNING Classical (Respondent) Conditioning • • Ivan Pavlov and His Dogs Stimulus Response (S-R) Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning • • • E.L. Thorndike and His Cats B.F. Skinner and His Rats Response Stimulus (R-S) or really S-R-S 0r ABC: Antecedents Behavior Consequences LEARNING BY CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV’S DOG Phases of Conditioning 1. 2. 3. Before Conditioning • UCS (food) -> UCR (salivation) During Conditioning (Acquisition) • CS (bell) paired with UCS (food) -> UCR (salivation) After Conditioning • CS (bell) -> CR (salivation) http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/classcnd.html http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/classcnd.html http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/classcnd.html CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN “THE OFFICE” T2P: THINK-PAIR-SHARE Think of time when you feel you were classical conditioned (or when you think you witnessed CC in action). Write a short paragraph describing this event. Pair up with a person next to you. Share your experiences with each other and then: * Create a diagram to represent the experience that you think best exemplifies CC (you may want to use the labels NS, UCS, CS, UCR, CR). * Discuss the educational implications (If this is positive example, how might you promote it? If negative, how might you prevent it? * Be prepared to share your model with your peers OTHER PAVLOVIAN PHENOMENA 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Generalization (Transfer) Discrimination (Shaping) Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Conditioned Emotional Responses IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING 1. 2. 3. Avoid conditioning negative responses: e.g., don’t dwell on poor performances, tell student you expect better work next time. Link learning to positive emotions: e.g., pair positive feelings with learning, esp. areas where students are having difficulty. Teach students to generalize and discriminate appropriately: e.g., make it clear that poor performance on one project or test does make the student an overall poor performer. BEHAVIORAL VIEWS OF LEARNING Classical (Respondent) Conditioning • • Ivan Pavlov and His Dogs Stimulus -> Response (S-R) Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning • • • E.L. Thorndike and His Cats B.F. Skinner and His Rats Response -> Stimulus (R-S) or really S-R-S 0r ABC: Antecedents -> Behavior -> Consequences OPERANT CONDITIONING: SKINNERIAN STYLE LEARNING BY OPERANT CONDITIONING: THRONDIKE’S CATS, SKINNER’S RATS Operants Voluntary, goal-directed behaviors emitted to produce a consequence Thorndike’s Law of Effect Actions that produce desirable effects in a given situation tend to be repeated in that situation, and vice-versa. Skinner’s Three-Term Contingency Model A B C Operant Conditioning: Four Major Methods Outcome of Conditioning Presentation of Stimulus Increase Behavior Decrease Behavior Positive Reinforcement (“Reward”) Presentation Punishment (“Type I”) Removal/With Negative holding of Reinforcement Stimulus (“Escape”) Removal Punishment (“Type II”) http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.html GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF… Presentation Punishment -Apply negative stimulus to decrease behavior Removal Punishment -Remove positive stimulus to decrease behavior OPERANT CONDITIONING: SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Continuous Reinforce after every response light switch Fixed-interval Reinforce after a set period of time quiz every Friday Variable-interval Reinforce after varying lengths of time pop quiz Fixed-ratio Reinforce after set number of responses gold stars Variable-ratio Reinforce after varying number of responses slot machines OPERANT CONDITIONING: ADDITIONAL CONCEPTS & METHODS Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers Food, Water, Shelter, etc. vs. Grades, Money, Status, etc. Premack’s Principle (aka Grandma’s Rule) First you do this, then you get that: “You can go out to play after you eat your vegetables.” Skinner’s Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous vs. Intermittent (Interval/Ratio; Fixed/Variable) = V-R Schedule is most effective Shaping/Successive Approximation Method of teaching complex behavior by rewarding behav. that comes closer and closer to desired behav. A BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE APPROACH TO TEACHING Four Components 1. Focus instruction on observable learner performance. 2. Assure learners can perform all prerequisite skills. 3. Present instructional material effectively and elicit rapidly paced, correct performance. 4. Use appropriate consequences following performance. THEORY TO PRACTICE… Think of complex task in your subject area (such as conducting library or internet research for a paper). It’s over half way through the academic year and many of your students still depend on you for stepby-step instructions every time you assign the task. How can you help them to learn or internalize the skills needed? SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (BANDURA, 1977, 1986) BANDURA’S THEORIES OF LEARNING Social Learning Theory (1977) A Neo-Behavioral View of Learning • Behaviorism + Social Factors = Learn by observing others (and from the consequences of their actions) • Learning-Performance Distinction = We know more than we show • Social Cognitive Theory (1986) • Introduced personal factors into the equation • Triadic Reciprocality = SLT + Cognitive Factors • Bridge between behavioral and cognitive learning theories TRIADIC RECIPROCALITY http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/efftalk.html MODELING (2 MEANINGS) 1) What the model does -Demonstrate a behavior 2) What the observer does -Mimic a behavior Teaches new behaviors Influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors May encourage previously forbidden behaviors Increases frequency of similar behaviors TYPES OF MODELS Live Model Someone who is directly observed (e.g. peers, parents, teachers) TYPES OF MODELS Symbolic Model Does not exist in same environment (e.g. books, television, movies) MODEL CHARACTERISTICS Relevant: Model is similar to the observer (age, gender, ethnicity, SES) and is performing an interesting behavior Competence: Model should be viewed as competent by the observer Status: Model should have high status in the observer’s environment Gender Appropriateness: Someone of same sex performing gender appropriate behaviors BANDURA’S BOBO DOLL BANDURA’S BOBO DOLL LEARNING BY OBSERVING: FOUR KEY PROCESSES OF THE OBSERVER Attention = Must attend to the behavior being observed Retention = Must remember the behavior Reproduction = Must be able to produce the observed behavior Motivation = Must be motivated to perform the behavior TRIADIC RECIPROCALITY http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/efftalk.html ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS: Response facilitation (vicarious reinforcement) Response inhibition (vicarious punishment) Response disinhibition PERSONAL FACTORS: SELF EFFICACY Belief about one’s capabilities for success How SE is strengthened: Past performance Modeling Verbal persuasion Physiological state • • • • How does SE affect behavior? • • • • Choice of activities Goals Effort and persistence/ task perseverance Learning & achievement SELF-EFFICACY What affects the development of SE? Past successes and failures Messages from others - “Pep talks” Successes and failures of others Successes and failures of one’s “group” LEARNING LIKE A MACHINE Operant Conditioning Skinnerian Approach The Black Box - Cognitive Processes human mind Stimulus Response Cognition is Opening the Black Box thinking schemata memory metacognition reasoning elaboration scripts Cognition ACQUISITION TRANSFER RETRIEVAL INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES: COMMON FOCUS & ASSUMPTIONS Focus on internal (mental) processes that intervene between S and R (less concerned with objective external conditions). Assumptions 1. Learners actively seek out, process, organize, and even transform information…. 2. Processing occurs in stages and the form of information changes from stage to stage 3. Computer processing is analogous to (or least an apt metaphor for) human information processing Components of Memory Sensory Short-Term Store (SSTS) very short (0.5 seconds) ex: brief snapshot Short-Term M. (STM) / Working M. limited capacity chunking and rehearsal Long-Term M. (LTM) organized assimilated to existing knowledge Working Memory Also referred to as short-term memory Where you hold information while you are “working on it’ Calculations Sounding out/ figuring out new words Making decisions THE TWO-STORE MODEL Working Memory on your mind It’s what’s… Long-Term Memory Its capacity is … in your mind Its duration is… practically unlimited It consists of… relatively permanent limited (7+/-2) very brief words, images, ideas, sentences and other symbols productions, propositional networks, schemata, images, episodes INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL Environmental Inputs/Stimuli Executive Sensory Registers Attention Control Maintenace Rehearsal Processes Perception Lost Prior Knowledge; Current Needs Working (Short-Term)Memory Prior Knowledge In-Depth Processing Lost Organization (chunking, etc) Elaborative Rehearsal Schemata (Assimilation v Accommodation) Long-Term Memory Lost? COMPONENTS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING: SENSORY MEMORY Sensory Registers (Vision, Hearing, Touch, Smell, Taste, and ???) Each sense has its own register and each can be engaged simultaneously & independently Perception The process of attaching meaning to the environmental stimuli we receive through our sensory registers Gesalt Theory (top-down processing = using knowledge and expectation) Attention A limited resource and general limitation of the entire human information processing system (ie determines which stimuli receive further processing) Influenced by: size, intensity, personal significance, incongruity & emotion FACE-TO-FACE OR VASE? FLIPPING FIGURE-GROUND INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL Environmental Inputs/Stimuli Executive Sensory Registers Attention Control Maintenace Rehearsal Processes Perception Lost Prior Knowledge; Current Needs Working (Short-Term)Memory Prior Knowledge In-Depth Processing Lost Organization (chunking, etc) Elaborative Rehearsal Schemata (Assimilation v Accommodation) Long-Term Memory Lost? A MODEL OF INFORMATION PROCESSING Chunking Maintenance Rehearsal: Grouping individual bits of information in a meaningful way Using mental and verbal repetition to hold information in short-term memory for immediate use. Elaborative Rehearsal: Encoding new information in long-term memory by consciously relating it to already stored (prior) knowledge. KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE DomainGeneral Declarative (knowing that) Procedural (knowing how) Conditional (knowing when) DomainSpecific THE SEVEN SINS OF MEMORY Why do we forget? Or did you forget!? WHY WE FORGET Decay (memory trace weakens over time) Synapses, like muscles, atrophy when not used Inaccessibility (inadequate retrieval cues) Cue-dependent forgetting Blocking (retroactive and proactive) Brain tries to retrieve information but another memory interferes with it (e.g. tip of tongue phenomenon) Suppression (intentional and subconscious) Repeatedly blocking thoughts of experiences until they can no longer retrieve the memory COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS: THREE ADDITIONAL “SINS” OF MEMORY Misattribution -- attributing a memory to an incorrect source (e.g., we hear something from a friend, but we think we heard it on the radio.) Suggestibility -- implanted memories arise as a result of leading questions or leading suggestions Bias -- retrospective distortions produced by current knowledge and belief (i.e., when what we know, believe and feel in the present skews our reconstruction of the past). **Memory is not a tape or video recorder; it's a reconstruction that uses bits of information from the past and combines that with what we currently know and believe. Excerpted from The Seven Sins of Memory: How the Mind Forgets and Remembers (2002) by Daniel L. Schacter IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING Get students’ attention! Allow time for rehearsal/practice Help students elaborate Arrange memorable learning experiences Use images, pictures, visual representations Organize information Teach conditional knowledge Encourage “learning by doing” TELL ME MORE… How would you use information processing ideas in your classroom? How would you gain and maintain the attention of your students? Imagine you were asked by a parent to identify what you feel is effective teaching. Using your knowledge of the Information Processing Model of Memory, respond to this parent. https://www.cia.gov/csi/books/19104/figure10.gif LEARNING LIKE A HUMAN CONSTRUCTIVISM Key Concepts and Questions What is constructivism? What are the major perspectives and common elements? How can teachers create constructivist-based learning environments? CONSTRUCTIVISM “a vast and wooly area in contemporary psychology, epistemology, and education” (Von Glaserfeld, 1997, p. 204). “the learner’s contribution to meaning and learning through both individual and social activity” (Bruning et al., 1999, p. 215; italics added). How is Knowledge Constructed? 1. By the realities and truths of external world (Info Pro Theory) 2. By internal processes such as assimilation (Piaget) 3. By both internal and external factors (Vygotsky) CONSTRUCTIVISM: ITS MANY FACES Many intellectual roots: philosophy, psychology, educators No single theory: but general consensus that learners play an active role in building (“constructing”) their own knowledge and understanding…. Two major forms or camps: Psychological (Piaget): “First Wave Constructivism” Emphasis on “how individuals build up certain elements of their cognitive and emotional apparatus” (Phillips, 1997, p. 153). Social (Vygotsky): “Second Wave Constructivism” Emphasis on how “social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development and learning” (Woolfolk, p. 324) CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS COMMON ELEMENTS AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES Complex Learning Environment and Authentic Tasks: Ill-structured, realworld problems that are of emerging relevance to students are explored; Multiple solutions are possible and derived at via authentic tasks and activities Social Negotiation and Shared Responsibility: Students’ points of view are heard and valued; Responsibility for problem-solving is distributed. Multiple Representations of Content: The curriculum is adapted to address students’ prior knowledge, presuppositions, and misconceptions; Problems are considered using various analogies, examples, and metaphors. Construction of Conceptual Understanding: Learning is structured around primary concepts (“big ideas”) of the discipline (or subfield) being investigated; Students are aware of their own role in constructing knowledge and making meaning of the world. Student Ownership: Students, with guidance from the teacher, determine what and how they learn as well as the products of their learning. STAR LEGACY LEARNING CYCLE EDUCATIONAL APPLICATIONS OF CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEWS OF LEARNING Cognitive Apprenticeships Class Discussions Reciprocal Teaching (RT) Question Clarify Summarize Predict Cooperative Learning/Group Work Peer Tutoring Community of Learners Technology-Based Discussions Instructional Dialogues Problem/Project-Based Learning Simulations