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Sneed - AP Chapter 5 Learning Learning- a process that produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of past experiences o Occurs in every setting not just classroom and takes place at every age not just to humans Conditioning- the process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses o Includes classical condition, operant conditioning, and observational learning Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov- Russian physiologist who directed several research laboratories in St. Petersburg, Russia o Realized a dog salivated before he gave it food during an experiment, dog learned to associate Pavlov for doggie treats Classical conditioning- the basic learning process that involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a response-producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response, also called respondent conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning o Process of learning an association between two stimuli o Involves pairing neutral stimulus with an unlearned, natural stimulus that automatically elicits a reflexive response, becoming a learned association Unconditioned stimulus (UCS- the natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning Unconditioned response (UCR)- the unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus (CS)- a formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response Conditioned response (CR)- the learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus Factors That Affect Conditioning Stimulus generalization- the occurrence of a learned response not only to the original stimulus, but to other, similar stimuli as well Stimulus discrimination- the occurrence of a learned response to a specific stimulus, but not to other, similar stimuli Extinction (in classical conditioning)- the gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior, occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus o Conditioned response would reappear when the conditioned stimulus was again presented Spontaneous recovery- the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus o Learned response may seem to disappear, but it is not eliminated or erased From Pavlov to Watson John B. Watson- American psychologist who published a landmark article in 1913 entitled “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” o challenged the early founders of psychology who focused on studying subjective mental processes o founded a new school of psychology with this article o became president of the American Psychological Association in 1915 o believed that virtually all human behaviors are a result of conditioning and learning (past influences and environmental influences) o neither talent, personality, nor intelligence was inherited Behaviorism- school of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the scientific study of observable behaviors, especially as the pertain to the process of learning o Observing behavior based on what the organism does or says Conditioned Emotional Reactions Watson’s interest in the role of classical conditioning in emotions set the stage for one of the most famous and controversial experiments In 1920 Watson and Rosalie Rayner proved that classical conditioning could be used to establish a conditioned emotional response in humans o Whenever Little Albert saw white rats, would always hear a steel clanging noise o Experienced stimulus generalization and learned to fear all objects physically similar to white rats Fear, happiness, and/or sadness can be classically conditioned using a neutral stimulus and natural reflex to establish a conditional reflex and even a stimulus generalization Unconditioned Stimulus Natural Reflex Unconditioned Response Neutral Stimulus + Unconditioned Stimulus Natural Reflex Unconditioned Response Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Reflex Conditioned Response Classical Conditioning and Drug Use Placebo response- an individual’s psychological and physiological response to what is actually a fake treatment or drug, also called placebo effect o Classical conditioning tends to produce a conditioned response that is similar to the drug’s effect o Classical conditioning can produce very different effects with other kinds of drugs, especially drugs that disrupt the body’s normal functioning Tachycardia- excessively rapid heartbeat, can be caused by epinephrine (adrenaline) o Body’s compensatory response is to slow down the heart rate, producing opposite effect, bradycardia Conditioned compensatory response (CCR)- a classically conditioned response in which stimuli that reliably precede the administration of a drug elicit a physiological reaction that counteracts the drug’s effect o Drug users feel it as withdrawal symptoms Spontaneous recovery- conditioned response observed after presenting the conditioned stimulus again after a lengthy period of time (after extinction) Contemporary Views of Classical Conditioning Cognitive perspective- mental processes as well as external events are an important component in the learning of new behaviors Cognitive Aspects of Classical Conditioning Robert A. Rescorla- demonstrated that classically conditioned rats (with musical tone and electric shocks) also assess the reliability of signals o Classical conditioning depends on the information the conditioned stimulus provides about the unconditioned stimulus, learning the relationship between events o Conditioned stimulus must be a reliable signal for learning to occur o Rats in both group were actively processing information about the reliability of the signals o The animals assess the predicted value of the stimuli o Animals use cognitive processes to draw inferences about the signals they encounter in their environments Evolutionary Aspects of Classical Conditioning Taste aversion- a classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food o Conditioned taste aversion challenges the notion that virtually any stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus Senses associated with bad taste do not affect the patient o Painful stimulus is associated with external stimuli and taste stimulus is associated with internal stimuli o Taste aversion can be more readily classically conditioned than can arbitrary associations John Garcia- demonstrated that taste aversion could be produced in laboratory rats under controlled conditions Biological preparedness- the idea that an organism is innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses Operant Conditioning Classical conditioning cannot explain for nonreflexive/voluntary actions Operant conditioning solves this problem by explaining how we acquire and maintain voluntary behaviors Thorndike and the Law of Effect Edward Thorndike- first psychologist to systematically investigate animal learning and how voluntary behaviors are influenced by their consequences, published Animal Intelligence: An Experimental Study of the Associative Processes in Animals (1898) o Wanted to discover if animals used reasoning to solve problems like humans o Put cats in a “puzzle box” and watch them try to escape, after multiple trials concluded that the cats did not display any humanlike insight or reasoning o Explained the cats’ learning as a process of trial and error to emphasize relationship between actions and consequences o Elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1912 Law of effect- learning principle proposed by Thorndike that responses followed by a satisfying effect become strengthened and are more likely to recur in a particular situation, while responses followed by a dissatisfying effect are weakened and less likely to recur in a particular situation B. F. Skinner and the Search for “Order in Behavior” B. F. Skinner- searched for the “lawful processes” that would explain “order in behavior” o Strongly believed that psychology should restrict itself to studying only phenomena that could be objectively measured and verified- outwardly visible behavior and environmental events o Acknowledged existence of “internal factors” (thoughts, expectations, and perceptions) but could not be used to explain behavior o According to him, most important form of learning was demonstrated by new behaviors that were actively emitted by the organism Operant- Skinner’s term for an actively emitted (or voluntary) behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences Reinforcement Operant conditioning- the basic learning process that involves changing the probability of a response being repeated by manipulating the consequences of that response, Skinner conditioning Reinforcement- the occurrence of a stimulus or event following a response that increases the likelihood of that response being repeated o Operant- the active response you emitted o Reinforcement stimulus (reinforcer)- the stimulus or event that is sought in a particular situation Positive reinforcement- a situation in which a response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus, increasing the likelihood the response will be repeated in similar situations o Reinforcing stimulus is not necessarily something we usually consider positive or desirable Negative reinforcement- a situation in which a response results in the removal, avoidance, or escape from an aversive stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations o Aversive stimuli- typically involve physical or psychological discomfort that an organism seeks to escape or avoid, behaviors are said to be negatively reinforced when they let you either: Escape aversive stimuli that are already present (escape behavior) Avoid aversive stimuli before they occur (avoidance behavior) Primary and Conditioned Reinforcers Primary reinforce- a stimulus or event that is naturally or inherently reinforcing for a given species, such as food, water, or other biological necessities Conditioned reinforce- a stimulus or event that has acquired reinforcing value by being associated with a primary reinforce, also called a secondary reinforce Punishment Punishment- the presentation of a stimulus or event following a behavior that acts to decrease the likelihood of the behavior’s being repeated o Negative reinforcement always increases the likelihood that an operant will be repeated o Punishment always decreases the future performance of an operant Punishment by application- a situation in which an operant is followed by the presentation or addition of an aversive stimulus, also called positive punishment Punishment by removal- a situation in which an operant is followed by the removal or subtraction of a reinforcing stimulus, also called negative punishment Several factors influence effectiveness of punishment: o More effective if immediately follows a response than if delayed o More effective if consistently follows a response than if occasionally Several drawbacks of punishment: o Punishment may decrease a specific response but doesn’t necessarily teach or promote a more appropriate response to take its place o Punishment that is intense may produce undesirable results (passivity, fear, anxiety, hostility) o Effects of punishment are likely to be temporary Discriminative Stimuli Discriminative stimulus- a specific stimulus in the presence of which a particular response is more likely to be reinforced, and in the absence of which a particular response is not reinforced o According to Skinner behavior is determined and controlled by stimuli that are present in a given situation o Individual decision is determined by environmental stimuli and person’s reinforcement history in that environment, not by personal choice or conscious decision Shaping and Maintaining Behavior Operant chamber or Skinner box- the experimental apparatus invented by B. F. Skinner to study the relationship between environmental events and active behaviors Shaping- the operant conditioning procedure of selectively reinforcing successively closer approximations of a goal behavior until the goal behavior is displayed o Skinner believed that shaping could explain how people acquire a wide variety of abilities and skills The Partial Reinforcement Effect: Building Resistance to Extinction Continuous reinforcement- a schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a particular response is reinforced Partial reinforcement- a situation in which the occurrence of a particular response is only sometimes followed by a reinforce o Partially reinforced behaviors tend to be more resistant to extinction than are continuously reinforced behaviors Partial reinforcement effect- the phenomenon in which behaviors that are conditioned using partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than behaviors that are conditioned using continuous reinforcement The Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of reinforcement- the delivery of a reinforce according to a preset pattern based on the number of responses or the time interval between responses Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule- a reinforcement schedule in which a reinforce is delivered after a fixed number of responses has occurred o Typically produce a high rate of responding that follows a burst-pause-burst pattern Variable-ratio (VR) schedule- a reinforcement schedule in which a reinforce is delivered after an average number of responses, which varies unpredictably from trial to trail o Produces high, steady rates of responding with hardly any pausing between trials or after reinforcement Fixed-interval (FI) schedule- a reinforcement schedule in which a reinforce is delivered for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed o Typically produce a pattern of responding in which the number of responses tend to increase as the time for the next reinforce draws near Variable-interval (VI) schedule- a reinforcement schedule in which a reinforce is delivered for the first response that occurs after an average time interval, which varies unpredictably from trial to trial o Unpredictable nature of variable-interval schedules tends to produce moderate but steady rates of responding, especially when the average interval is short o Reinforcement depends on the passage of time rather than on the number of responses Behavior modifications- the application of learning principles to help people develop more effective or adaptive behaviors o Has been used in diverse situations o The systematic use of reinforcement and shaping resulted in the increased occurrence of desirable behaviors