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AP PSYCHOLOGY LEARNING REVIEW
Associative Learning:
Learning that certain events occur together the events may be two stimuli (as in classical
conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
Ex.) Two related events:
Stimulus 1: Lightening + Stimulus 2: Thunder
Result after repetition:
Stimulus: We see lightening = Response: We wince, anticipating thunder
Classical Conditioning:
A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli.
A neutral stimulus (NS) that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a
response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus.
*Ivan Pavlov created a classical conditioning experiment where dogs learned to salivate when
they heard a bell.
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Neutral Stimulus- a stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than
focusing attention (same as the CS)
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Unconditioned Stimulus- a stimulus that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically
triggers a response
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Unconditioned Response- the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the
unconditioned stimulus
EX.) Salvation when food is in mouth
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Conditioned Stimulus- an originally, irrelevant stimulus that after association with an
unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response (same as the NS)
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Conditioned Response- the learned response to a previously neutral (but now
conditioned) stimulus
Formula:
NS → nothing
NS + UCS → UCR
CS → CR
Ex.) A man has a fear of snakes. Whenever this man is given a Dr. Pepper, he is shown a snake
immediately after. After, the man will begin to tremble with fear as soon as he sees a Dr. Pepper.
NS= Dr. Pepper
UCS= Snake
CS= Dr. Pepper
UCR= fear
CR=fear
Acquisition- learning begins with an association between a CS and a UCS
In operant conditioning: the rate of a reinforced response increases or decreases, either way one
learns.
Ex.) You go to work to get paid
Rat in the Skinner box presses lever for food
Extinction- the process of unlearning a behavior (when CS no longer causes the CR)
Generalization- the tendency to respond to a similar CS
Ex.) Child is praised for saying “doggie” to a dog then says “doggie “to a horse
CAN! Tan, band…. (IN CLASS)
Discrimination- when the subject is trained to tell the difference between various stimuli
Spontaneous Recovery- where a previously extinguished response returns after a rest interval
John B. Watson: Little Albert experiment
He classically conditioned the baby to fear white rats. The baby was already afraid of loud noises
so Watson conditioned him to fear white rats by pairing the loud noise with the white rats.
Operant Conditioning: a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a
reinforcer or diminished if lowered by a punisher.
Shaping: rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior
Ex.) Getting a dog to roll over or marble experiment in cup (IN CLASS)
Skinner’s Box: Where rats were conditioned to press a lever because their result was getting
food.
Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens or increases the frequency of a preceding response.
Positive Reinforcement: Strengthens a response by presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus
after a response.
Ex.) Food for hungry animals, attention, money
Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens a response by reducing or removing an undesirable
stimulus.
Ex.) Taking aspirin to relieve a headache
Pushing the snooze button to silence the annoying alarm
Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological
need
Ex.) Getting food when hungry or being relieved of electric shock
Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer: a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its
association with a primary reinforcer.
Ex.) Money, good grades a pleasant tone of voice, a word of praise
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
Ex.) When a dependable candy machine fails to deliver a chocolate bar twice in a row,
we stop putting money into it.
Fixed Ratio: Reinforce behavior after a set number of responses.
Ex.) For every 30 pieces you get paid
Variable Ratio: Provide reinforcer after an unpredictable number of responses
Ex.) Slot machines
Fixed Interval: Reinforce the first response after a fixed time period
Ex.) People checking more frequently or the mail as the delivery time approaches
Variable Interval: Reinforce the first response after varying time intervals
Ex.) “You’ve Got Mail” that finally rewards persistence in rechecking for email
Punishment: an event that decreases the behavior that if follows
Ex.) The rat that is shocked after touching a forbidden object
Law of Effect: Rewarded behavior is likely to occur!
E.L Thorndike: Cat in the puzzle box experiment
Observational Learning: Learning by observing others
Ex.) Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Albert Bandura: Created Modeling-Bobo doll study
Showed a film in which a women was beating up a Bobo doll and being aggressive. He then
showed it to a group of children. After the children were shown imitating the actions and aggressive
behavior when playing with the Bobo doll.
Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to
demonstrate it.
Ex.) Abusive parent, you don’t know you learned it, until you’re put into that situation
Cognitive Map: A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
Ex.) After exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
Insight Learning:
Wolfgang Kohler and his chimpanzees
Some animals learn through the “ah ha” experience
Intrinsic motivation: A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats or
punishment.
Ex.) Intrinsically motivated people work and play in search of enjoyment, interest, selfexpression, or challenge.
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Participating in a sport because you find the activity enjoyable
Solving a word puzzle because you find the challenge fun and interesting
Playing a game because you find it exciting
Extrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of
punishment.
Ex.)
 Studying because you want to get a good grade
 Cleaning your room to avoid being reprimanded by your parents
 Participating in a sport in order to win awards
 Competing in a contest in order to win a scholarship