Download Glossary of terms that may be used in breast cancer clinical trial

Glossary of terms that may be used in breast cancer clinical trial research –
compiled by Linda Reaby AM PhD, Coordinator ANZ BCTG
Consumer Advisory Panel (updated April 2008)
A.
Aberrant – Deviating from normal
Ablation, hormonal – In cancer, various techniques to reduce the level of hormones in the blood to as
low as possible.
AC – Chemotherapy combination of two different drugs: Adriamycin and Cytoxan.
Accrual – The number of patients entered into a study. Each clinical trial requires a specific number of
participants in order to provide adequate information for analysis to answer the specific questions asked
in the study.
ACOSOG – A National Cancer Institute (NCI) funded cancer cooperative group. Stands for American
College of Surgeons Oncology Group.
Adjuvant therapy – Therapy given to augment or simulate some other form of treatment such as
surgery or radiation therapy. It can be administered before or after the primary treatment.
Adverse effect – An unwanted side effect of treatment.
Agent study – In cancer prevention clinical trials, a study that tests whether taking certain medicines,
vitamins, minerals, or food supplements can prevent cancer. Also called chemoprevention study.
Agranulocytosis – Disorder involving a severe acute deficiency in certain blood cells – neutrophils –
as a result of damage to the bone marrow by toxic drugs or chemicals; characterized by fever,
ulceration of mouth and throat, and sudden death.
Agonist – This refers to a characteristic of some types of drug, which means they act by triggering the
normal activity of specific cells in the body.
Allele – Variant forms of the same gene. Different alleles produce variations in inherited
characteristics, such as eye color or blood type.
Alopecia – Baldness.
Amenorrhea – The absence or discontinuation of menstruation.
Amino acid – The building blocks that make up proteins. There are 20 different amino acids; the body
can create 11, and 9 must be obtained through the diet. These nine are known as essential amino acids.
Amplification – An increase in the number of copies of a specific DNA fragment; can occur either in
vivo or in vitro.
Analysis – A process in which anything complex is separated into simple or less complex parts. In
clinical trials, analysis typically refers to the review and interpretation of data collected during the
study.
Androgens – A class of hormones that conduce to masculinization, such as the testicular hormone.
Includes androsterone and testosterone.
Anecdotal report – An incomplete description of the medical and treatment history of one or more
patients. Anedotal reports may be published in places other than peer-reviewed scientific journals.
Anemia – Reduction of the quality of the oxygen carrying pigment, hemoglobin, in the blood; systems
include shortness of breath after exertion, fatigue, tiredness, pallor, poor resistance to infection.
Aneuploid – The characteristic of having either fewer or greater than the normal number of
chromosomes in a cell. Usually this indicates an abnormal cell.
Angiogenesis – The development of new blood vessels.
Animal model – Models are used to study the development and progression of diseases and to test new
treatments before they are given to humans. Animals with transplanted human cancers or other tissues
are called xenograft models.
Anti-angiogenesis – Prevention of the growth of new blood vessels.
Antagonist – A drug that binds to a cellular receptor without producing any physiological effects and
that blocks the binding by any other substance to that receptor.
Antibody – Immunoglobulin molecule that has a specific amino acid sequence that causes it to interact
only with the antigen that induced its synthesis or with an antigen closely related to it in an immune
response. Antibodies are classified according to their mode of action as agglutinins, bacteriolysins,
hemolysins, opsonins, precipitins, etc.
Antibody specificity – The property of antibodies, which enables them to react with some antigenic
determinants and not with others.
Antibody therapy – Treatment with an antibody, a substance that can directly kill specific tumour
cells or stimulate the immune system to kill tumour cells.
Antigen – Any substance capable of inducing a specific immune response, and of reacting with the
products of that response. They may be foreign proteins, toxins, bacteria, or viruses.
Antihormone therapy – Treatment with drugs, surgery, or radiation in order to block the production
or action of a hormone. Antihormone therapy may be used in cancer treatment because certain
hormones are able to stimulate the growth of some types of tumours.
Antineoplastic – Literally, against neoplasm, which is any new or abnormal growth or any benign or
malignant tumour, chemotherapy is therefore antineoplastic by definition, since it is targeted to destroy
tumour cells.
Antisense – The strand of double-stranded DNA that is complementary to the sense strand.
ANZ BCTG – Australian and New Zealand Breast Cancer Trials Group. It is a trans-Tasman clinical
trials group, which conducts research on new treatments for breast cancer.
Apoptosis – One of the two mechanisms by which cell death occurs. This is characterized by cell
shrinkage, DNA condensation, and DNA degradation.
Arimidex (anastrozole) – a non-steroidal aromatase inhibitor.
Arm – Any of the treatment groups in a randomized trial. Most randomized trials have two “arm”, but
some three “arm”, or even more.
Aromatase inhibitor(s) – A class of drugs used to treat breast cancer. They act by significantly
reducing the production of estrogen in postmenopausal women in whom the ovaries no longer function.
Anastrolzole and letrozole are one type (non-steroidal) and exemestane is the other (steroidal).
Assay – The determination of the amount, purity, or potency of a substance.
Atypia – Used to describe cells with have lost their normal appearance but are not as abnormal as
cancer cells.
Autosome – Any ordinary paired chromosome, as distinguished from a sex chromosome. Human cells
contain 22 pairs of autosomes.
Axilla – The armpit
B.
Bacteriophage – A virus that lyses (destroys) bacteria.
Base pairs – The two complementary, nitrogen-rich molecules held together to form double-stranded
DNA. Two strands of DNA are held together in the shape of a double helix by the bonds between their
base pairs.
Basement membrane – A thin, delicate membrane lying at the base of an epithelium; composed of
protein fibers.
Benign (Tumour) – A tumour that is not cancerous. Benign tumours do not spread to tissues around
them or to other parts of the body. Many can be surgically removed.
Best practice – In medicine, treatment that experts agree is appropriate, accepted, and widely used.
Healthcare providers are obligated to provide patients with the best practice. Also called standard
therapy or standard of care.
Bias – Any deviation of results or inferences from the truth, or processes leading to such deviation.
Bioassay – Quantitative determination of the potency of a substance through the measurement of its
effects on tissue, cells, living experimental animals, or humans.
Biobank – A repository of tissue and blood samples that can be used for genetic research.
Biomarker – A cellular or molecular indicator of exposure, health effects, or susceptibility.
Biopsy – Removal of a small piece of living tissue from an organ or body part for microscopic
examination; important means of diagnosing cancer by examining a fragment of tumour.
Blinded study – A research study in which the subject and/or observers are not told to which
experimental group subjects are assigned. When subjects and observers are not informed, the study is
considered double-blinded/masked. When study analysts or statisticians are unaware of group
assignments, the study is considered triple-blinded/masked. Also know as masked study.
Blood count – A laboratory test to measure the number of red blood cells (RBC’s), white blood cells
(WBC) and platelets (Plts) in a blood sample.
B-Lymphocytes – B cells, the cells primarily responsible for humoral immunity, the precursors of
antibody-producing cells (plasma cells).
Bone marrow – The soft tissue filling the cavities of bones. Bone marrow exists in two types, yellow
and red. Yellow marrow is found in the large cavities of large bones and consists mostly of fat cells
and a few primitive blood cells. Red marrow is a hemotopoietic tissue and is the site of production of
erythrocytes (red blood cells) and granular leukocytes. Bone marrow is made-up of a framework of
connective tissue containing branching fibers, with the frame being filled with marrow cells.
Breast Cancer Gene 1 (BCRA1) - Tumor-suppressor genes located on human chromosome 17q12-21.
The mutation of these genes is associated with the formation of familial breast and ovarian cancer.
Breast Cancer Gene 2 (BRCA2) – BRCA2 is a breast and ovarian cancer susceptibility gene on
human chromosome 13, mutated in a subset of early-onset inherited breast and ovarian cancers,
associated with development and progression of these cancers; it has been sequenced.
C.
CAF – Chemotherapy combination of three different drugs: Cytotxan, Adriamycin, and 5-fluorouracil.
CD3, CD4, and CD8 – Three of a number of lymphocytes surface proteins (markers) that promote the
activities of T cells.
Calcifications – Small calcium deposits in breast tissue that can be seen on a mammogram. Deposits
are the result of cell death and can occur with either benign or malignant changes.
Cancer – A term for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control. Cancer cells can invade
nearby tissues and can spread through the blood stream and lymphatic system to other parts of the
body.
Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) – Blood test used to follow women with metastatic breast cancer
to help determine if the treatments are working.
Carcinogen – Any substance that can initiate or promote the development of cancer.
Carcinoma – A malignant new growth made up of epithelial cells tending to infiltrate the surrounding
tissues and give rise to metastases.
Carcinoma, infiltrating duct – An invasive carcinoma of the breast. This is by far the most common
ductal tumor. It is characterized by stony hardness upon palpation and commonly metastasizes to the
axillary lymph nodes.
Carcinoma in situ – A neoplastic entity wherein the tumor cells are confined to the epithelium of
orgin, without invasion of the basement membrane.
Carcinoma, lobular – An infiltrating (invasive) breast cancer, relatively uncommon, accounting for
only 5% to 10% of breast tumors. It is often an area of ill-defined thickening in the breast.
Case-control study – A type of epidemiologic study that compares persons with a disease to persons
without the same disease on the basis of their past exposure to a suspected risk factor. Cases and
controls are matched to resemble each other in sex and age. Same as a retrospective study.
Cell – Small, watery membrane-bound compartment filled with chemicals; the basic unit of any living
organism.
Cell line – Cells from a person or animal that can be grown in a culture dish (in vitro). These cells can
be either normal or cancerous.
Cellular – Related to or consisting of cells.
CFP – Chemotherapy combination of three different drugs: Cytoxan, 5-fluorouracil, and prednisone.
Chemical base – An essential building block. DNA contains four complementary bases – adenine
paired with thymine and cytosine paired with guanine. In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil.
Chemokines – Class of pro-inflammatory cytokines that have the ability to attract and activate
leukocytes.
Chemotherapy – Drug treatment to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy may be taken by mouth, or it may
be put into the body by a needed into a vein, artery, or muscle.
Chimera – An organism composed of two genetically distinct types of cells.
Chromatid – Single chromosome containing only one DNA duplex. Two daughter chromatids become
visible at mitotic metaphase, though they are present throughout G2.
Chromatin – Early stainable DNA attached to a protein in the cell nucleus – the carrier of genes in
inheritance.
Chromosomes – A structure in the nucleus containing a linear tread of DNA, which transmits genetic
information and is associated with RNA and histones; during cell division. Each organism of a species
normally has a characteristic number of chromosomes in its somatic cells, 46 being the number
normally present in man, including the two (XX or XY) that determine the sex of the organism.
Clinical practice guidelines – Guidelines developed to help healthcare professionals and patients
make decisions about screening, prevention, or treatment of a specific health condition.
Clinical trial – A clinical trial is a research study to answer specific questions about vaccines or new
therapies or new ways of using known treatments. Clinical trials (also called medical research and
research studies) are used to determine whether anew drugs or treatments are both safe and effective.
Carefully conducted clinical trials are the fastest and safest way to find treatments that work in people.
Clone – A group of identical genes, cells, or organisms derived from a single ancestor.
Cloning – The process of making genetically identical copies.
CMF – Chemotherapy combination of three different drugs: Cytoxan, methotrexate, and 5-fluorouracil.
CMFVP – Chemotherapy combination of five different drugs: Cytoxan, methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil,
Vincristine, and prednisone.
Cohort – In epidemiology, a group of individuals with some characteristics in common.
Cohort studies – Prospective investigation of the factors that might cause a disorder in which a cohort
of individuals, who do not have evidence of but who are exposed to the putative cause, are compared
with a concurrent cohort who are also free of the disorder but not exposed to the putative cause. They
are then followed to compare the incidence of the outcome of interest. Also called longitudinal and
prospective study.
Combination chemotherapy – Use of two or more chemicals to achieve maximum damage to tumour
cells. Most common include: CAF, CFR, CMF, CMFVP.
Combined modality treatment – The integration of two or more forms of treatment to combat the
cancer. For example: radiation and surgery; radiation and chemotherapy; surgery, radiation and
chemotherapy.
Complementary DNA (cDNA) – DNA synthesized through viral reverse transcriptase that is
complementary to RNA.
Complementary and alternative medicine – Forms of treatment that are used in addition to
(complementary) or instead of (alternative) standard treatments. These practices generally are not
considered standard medical approaches.
Complete remission – The disappearance of all signs of caner in response to treatment. This does not
always mean the cancer has been cured. Also called a complete response.
Contralateral – On the opposite side of the body; in breast cancer, the other breast.
Control group – The standard by which experimental observations are evaluated. In many clinical
trials, one group of patients will be given an experimental drug or treatment, while the control group is
given either a standard treatment for the illness or a placebo.
Conventional therapy & treatment – A currently accepted and widely used Therapy and treatment
for a certain type of disease, based on the results of past research. Also call conventional treatment
Cooperative group - A group of physicians, hospitals, or both formed to treat a large number of
persons in the same way so that a new treatment can be evaluated quickly. Clinical trial of new cancer
treatments often require many more people than a single physician or hospital can care for. .
Core biopsy – Removal of a piece of a tumor or lump. The piece is then sent to the laboratory to
determine if the tumor is benign or malignant.
Cycle – Chemotherapy is usually administered at regular intervals. A cycle is a course of chemotherapy
followed by a period in which the body recovers.
Cyclin – Proteins (A & B forms known) whose levels in a cell vary markedly during the cell cycle,
rising until mitosis, and then falling abruptly to zero.
Cytokines – Nonantibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some nonleukocytic cells
that act as intercellular mediators. Not really different from hormones, but the term tends to be used as
a convenient generic shorthand for interleukins, lymphokines and several related signaling molecules
such as TNF and interferons.
Cytokinesis – Process in which cytoplasm of a cell is divided after nuclear division (mitosis) is
complete.
Cytology – The microscopic study of individual cells that have been sloughed off, cut out, or scraped
off organs to be examined for signs of cancer.
Cytoplasm – The cellular substance outside the nucleus, in which the cell’s organelles are suspended.
Cytotoxic – A cytotoxic drug is one that damages or destroys cells and is used to treat cancer.
D.
Data Safety and Monitoring Board – An independent committee, composed of community
representatives and clinical research experts that review data while a clinical trial is in progress to
ensure that participants are not exposed to undue risk. The Board may recommend that a trial be
stopped if there are safety concerns or if the trial objectives have been achieved.
Dendrites – Thread-like or tree branch-like extensions, such as the receptive surface of a new cell that
branches off from the cell body.
Dendritic cells – Cells that are branched like a tree and convey antigens.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – One of two nucleic acids found in the nucleus of all cells. DNA
contains genetic information on cell growth, division, and function.
Diagnosis – The process of identifying a disease by its characteristic signs, symptoms, and laboratory
findings. Plural: diagnoses.
Dimer – A molecule that consists of two similar subunits.
Disease-free survival – Period after successful treatment in which there is no appearance of the
symptoms or effects of the disease.
Disease Progression – Cancer that continues to grow.
Distant cancer – Refers to cancer that has spread from the original (primary) tumour to distant organs
or distant lymph nodes.
Dominant allele – A gene that is expressed, regardless of whether its counterpart allele on the other
chromosome is dominant or recessive.
Dose – The amount of medicine taken, or radiation given, at one time.
Double-blinded study – A clinical trial in which neither the medical staff nor the person knows which
of several possible therapies the person is receiving.
Doubling time – The time required to double the number of cells in a group of cells or in a tumour. A
short doubling time (under 100 days) indicates a fast-growing tumour
Down-regulate – This refers to the reduction or suppression of the natural response to stimulation by a
chemical in the body.
Drug – Any substance, other than food, that is used to prevent, diagnose, treat or relieve symptoms of a
disease or abnormal condition. Also refers to a substance that alters mood or body function, or that can
be habit-forming or addictive, especially a narcotic.
Duration of response – This is a measure of how effective a cancer treatment is and represents the
period of time that a drug will continue to be effective and the disease continues to respond to the
treatment.
E.
ECOG – Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. A group of American oncologists that conducts trials
on cancer treatments.
Effector cell – A terminally differentiated leukocyte that performs one or more specific functions.
Efficacy – Effectiveness. In medicine, the ability of an intervention (for example, a drug or surgery) to
produce the desired effect.
Eligibility criteria – In clinical trials, requirements that must be met for an individual to be included in
a study. These requirements help make sure that patients in a trial are similar to each other in terms of
specific factors such as age, type and stage of cancer, general health, and previous treatment. When all
participants meet the same eligibility criteria, it gives researchers greater confidence that results of the
study are caused by the intervention being tested and not by other factors.
Endogenous – Developing or originating within the organisms or arising from causes within the
organism.
Endpoint – Overall outcome that the protocol is designed to evaluate. Common endpoints are severe
toxicity, disease progression, or death.
Enzyme - Any protein that acts as a catalyst, increasing the rate of a chemical reaction. Enzyme names
often end with the suffix ase.
EORTC – European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer. A group that carries out
clinical trials on cancer therapies.
Epidemiology – Study of the determinants, distribution, and outcomes of health conditions, including
diseases, within a population.
Epigenetics – The study of mechanisms involved in the production of phenotypic complexity in
morphogenesis. (1) The study of heritable changes in gene sequences. Epigenetics is reshaping the
way scientists look at traditional genetics. This includes the study of how environmental factors
affecting a parent can result in changes in the way genes are expressed in the offspring.
Epitope - In a complex antigenic molecule, the simplest form of an antigenic determinant.
Estradiol – A form of estrogen synthesized mainly in the ovary, but also in the placenta and testes.
Estrogen – A hormone that is essential for menstruation, reproduction, and the development of
secondary sex characteristics, such as breasts.
Estrogen receptor (ER) – An intracellular receptor protein that binds estrogens and anti-estrogens and
then binds to DNA and alters the expression of specific genes. It is an indicator of responsiveness to
hormonal therapies. High ER expression is associated with a good prognosis and with a positive
response to hormonal therapy.
Etiology – Cause of disease or the study of causes of disease.
Eukaryotic – A type of cell with a nucleus. A Eukaryotic cell is also known as eukaryote.
Experimental drug – a drug that is not licensed for use in humans, or as a treatment for a particular
condition. Also called investigational.
F.
FAC – Chemotherapy combination of three different drugs: 5-fluorouracil, Adriamycin, and Cytoxan.
Familial breast cancer – Breast cancer affecting two or more close relatives, especially in
premenopausal women. It implies an inherited disposition.
Fibroblast – A connective tissue cell that differentiates into fibrous tissue.
Fibrocystic breast disease – A condition involving benign tumours of fibrous connective tissue within
the breasts.
Fibrosis – The development of tissue that is composed of fibers.
Flow cytometry – A technique for counting fluorescent-labeled cells or for separating selected
populations of the cells for subsequent study; examines large numbers of cells and allows the
separation of populations with, for example, particular surface properties.
Follicle-stimulating hormone – A hormone synthesized and released by the pituitary gland that
stimulates ripening of the follicles in the ovary and formation of sperm in the testes.
Founder effect – The principle that when a smaller subgroup of a larger population establishes itself as
a separate and isolated entity, the gene pool carries only a fraction of the genetic diversity of the parent
population. This may result in an increased frequency of certain diseases in the subgroup, especially
those diseases known to be autosomal recessive.
G.
GTPase – An energy-transferring enzyme.
Gamete – A reproductive cell (ovum or sperm) with the haploid chromosome number.
Gamma knife – A form of radiation therapy that uses a highly focused beam.
Gap 2 (G2) – In the somatic cell cycle, a pause between completion of synthesis and the onset of cell
division.
Gene – Segment of a DNA molecule that contains all information for synthesis of a product (e.g. RNA
molecule). The biological unit of heredity, each gene has a specific position (locus) on the
chromosome map.
Gene amplification – A process of DNA duplication that results in a chromosome having more than
one copy of a gene or genes and that can lead to inappropriate gene activation. It is a common
mechanism of activation of oncogenes such as erB-2 and
c-myc in breast cancer.
Gene deletion – The total loss or absence of a gene.
Gene expression – The process by which a gene’s coded information is translated into the structures
present and operating in the cell (either proteins or RNAs).
Gene markers – Landmarks for a target gene either by detectable traits that are inherited along with
the gene, or distinctive segments of DNA.
Gene therapy – Treating disease by replacing, manipulating, or supplementing nonfunctional or
abnormal genes.
Genetic testing – Analysing DNA to look for a genetic alteration that may indicate an increased risk
for developing a specific disease or disorder. Examples include BRCA 1 and 2 for breast cancer.
Genome – All the genetic material in all the chromosomes of a particular organism.
Genotype – The entire genetic constitution of an individual, or the alleles present at specific loci.
Germ cells – The reproductive cells of the body, either egg or sperm cells, and their precursors.
Germline – The cell line from which gametes are derived.
Grade – The degree of similarity of the cancer cells to normal cells. This is assessed by a pathologist.
A grade 1 carcinoma is well differentiated and is associated with a good prognosis. A grade 2
carcinoma is moderately differentiated and is associated with an intermediate prognosis. A grade 3
carcinoma is poorly differentiated and is associated with a poor prognosis.
Growth factors – Hormones that regulate the division of cells. Disturbances of growth factor
production or the response to growth factor are important in neoplastic transformation.
Guanosine Triphosphatase-activating Proteins (GAP) – A family of proteins that suppress tumors in
certain cancers. GAPs are similar in structure to a part of neurofibromin.
H.
Haploid – The chromosome number of a normal gamete, with only one member of each chromosome
pair. In humans, the haploid number is 23.
Haplotype – A group of alleles from closely linked loci, usually inherited as a unit. A set of restriction
fragments lengths closely linked to one another and to a gene of interest.
Heat Shock Proteins 70 – A class of molecular chaperones found in both prokaryotes and in several
compartments of eukaryotic cells.
Heat Shock Protein 90 – A class of molecular chaperones who members act in the mechanism of
signal transduction by steroid receptors.
Hepatocyte Growth Factor (HGF) - Mitogen shown to cause cell division in hepatocytes (liver cells).
HER-2/neu – An oncogene that may help determine resistance to hormone and chemotherapy.
Heterozygous – Having different alleles for a given gene.
Hetrodimeric – A dimmer in which two subunits are different. I.e. tubulin.
Histology – That department of anatomy that deals with the minute structure, composition, and
function of the tissues; also called microscopical anatomy.
Histone – A simple protein, soluble in water and insoluble in ammonia, associated with DNA in
chromatin. Histone is found in urine in leukemia and febrile conditions.
Homologous transplantation – Transplantation of tissue between genetically dissimilar animals of the
same species. Also known as allogenic transplantation.
Homologue – A member of the same species, but different genotype, or having a similar structure or
position.
Homozygous – Having identical alleles for a given gene.
Hormone – Chemicals secreted by various organs in the body that help regulate growth, metabolism,
and reproduction. Some hormones are used as treatment for breast, ovarian and prostate cancers.
Hormone receptors – Proteins in a cell, which bind to specific hormones. This binding stimulates the
cell to act in a certain way. These receptors are present in about 50% of all women with breast cancer.
Women with plenty of hormone receptors are likely to respond to hormone treatments, and are more
likely to do well than women without hormone receptors.
Hormonal therapy – Treatment of cancer by alteration of the hormonal balance. Some cancers will
only grow in the presence or absence of certain hormones.
HOX-Homobox – Conserved DNA sequences originally detected by DNA hybridization in many of
the genes that give rise to homeotic and segmentation mutants in drosophila.
Human Genome – The full collection of genes comprising a human being’s genetic and physical
characteristics.
Humoral immunity – A form of immunity whereby B lymphocytes and plasma cells produce
antibodies to foreign agents (antigens) and stimulate T lymphocytes to attack them. These antibodies
also stimulate the release of chemical mediators, which enhance antigen destruction.
Hyperfractionation – A way of giving radiation therapy in smaller-than-usual doses two or three
times a day instead of once a day.
Hyperplasia – An abnormal, excessive growth of cells that is benign.
Hypothesis – A supposition or assumption advanced as a basis for reasoning or argument, or as a guide
to experimental investigation.
I.
Immune system – Cellular and molecular components having the primary function of distinguishing
self from non0self and providing defense against foreign organisms or substances. The primary
cellular components are lymphocytes and macrophages, and the primary molecular components are
antibodies and lymphokines.
Immunohistochemistry (IHC) – Application of antigen-antibody interactions to histochemical
techniques (antibody labeled with a fluorescent dye).
Immunophilin – Generic term for intracellular protein that binds immunosuppressive drugs.
Immunosuppression – Suppression of the body’s immune system and its ability to fight infections or
disease. Immunosuppression may be deliberately induced with drugs, as in preparation for bone
marrow or other organ transplantation to prevent rejection of the donor tissue. It may also result from
anticancer drugs and other diseases.
Immunotherapy – A treatment that stimulates the body’s own defense mechanisms to combat diseases
such as cancer.
Imprinting – A biochemical phenomenon that determines for certain genes which one of the pair of
alleles, the mother’s or the father’s, will be active in that individual.
Incidence (rate) – The rate of new cases of a disease or event in a specified population during a
specified time period.
Inclusion/exclusion criteria – The medical or social standards determining whether a person may or
may not be allowed to enter a clinical trial. These criteria are based on such factors as age, gender, the
type and stage of a disease, previous treatment history, and other medical conditions. It is important to
note that inclusion and exclusion criteria are not used to reject people personally, but rather to identify
appropriate participants and keep them safe.
Induration – An area of abnormal hardness.
Infarct – Tissue death, resulting from too little blood flow or oxygen.
Infiltrating cancer – Cancer that has grown from the site in which it originated and into surrounding
tissues.
Informed consent – Voluntary authorization, given to the physician or an investigator, by the patient,
with full comprehension of the risks involved, for diagnostic or investigative procedures and medical
and surgical treatment.
In situ – In place, localized and confined to one area; a very early stage of cancer.
Integrins – Family of proteins that are located on the cell surface and that are involved in binding to
components outside the cell.
Institutional Review Board (IRB) – A group of scientists, doctors, clergy and consumers at each
healthcare facility that participates in a clinical trial. IRBs are designed to protect study participants.
They review and must approve the action plan for every clinical trial. They check to see that the trial
does not involve undue risks and includes safeguards for patients.
International Breast Cancer Study Group – An international cooperative group that includes many
Australian clinical researchers. The group is carrying out multi-centre trials, especially in the area of
chemotherapy.
Investigator – A researcher involved in conducting clinical trial or clinical study.
Intron – A sequence of DNA that is spliced out before a protein is made.
In vitro – Within a test tube or other outside of a living organism.
In vivo - Within a human or animal body.
Ipsilateral – On or affecting the same side of the body.
Isogenic – Of the same genotype.
K.
Karyotype – The complete set of chromosomes of a cell or organism. Used especially for the display
prepared from photographs of mitotic chromosomes arranged in homologous pairs.
Kinase – Widely used abbreviation for phosphokinase, an enzyme catalyzing transfer of phosphate
from ATP to a second substrate usually specified in less abbreviated name, for example creatine
phosphokinase (creatine kinase), protein kinase.
Knockout mouse – Mouse in which a specific gene has either been modified or eliminated so that it no
longer functions normally (the gene has been knocked out). This allows scientists to trace the role of
the gene in the mouse’s development process, especially as it relates to the development of a disease.
L.
Laboratory study – Done if a drug, procedure or treatment is likely to be useful. It takes place before
any testing is done in humans.
Laboratory test – A medical procedure that involves testing a sample of blood, urine or other
substance from the body. Tests can help determine a diagnosis, plan treatment, check to see if treatment
is working, or monitor the disease over time.
Late effects – Side effects of cancer treatment that appear months or years after treatment has ended.
Late effects include physical and mental problems and second cancers.
Lesion – Area of tissue with impaired function because of damage from injury or disease; examples of
primary lesions are ulcers, abscesses, and tumours.
Leukocytes – White blood cells. These include granular leukocytes (basophils, eosinophils, and
neutrophils) as well as non-granular leukocytes (lymphocytes and monocytes)
Leukopenia – Reduction of leukocytes in the blood.
Ligand – A molecule that binds to and interacts with a large molecule to cause some change. For
example a hormone or growth factor may bind to a receptor to activate a signaling pathway.
LIGHT – LIGHT gene is a member of the TNF superfamily of ligands and signals similarly.
Linear accelerator – A machine that produces high-energy x-ray beams to destroy cancer cells during
radiation therapy.
Linkage map – A map of the relative positions of genetic loci on a chromosome determined on the
basis of how often the loci are inherited together.
Liposome – Microscopic spherical membrane-enclosed sacs 20-30 mm in diameter, made artificially in
a laboratory; the membrane resembles a cell membrane and the liposome resembles a cell organelle,
enabling them to be incorporated into living cells, which is how they are able to transport toxic drugs
into cancer cells to exert maximum effect.
Lobular – When used in reference to breast tissue, the part of the breast that is furthest from the nipple,
the lobes.
Local recurrence – Return of the cancer in the affected breast.
Lump – Any kind of abnormal mass in the body.
Lymph – A clear fluid circulating throughout the body in the lymphatic system; contains white blood
cells and antibodies.
Lymphatic system – A system of vessels which drains fluid, out of the head, neck and limbs and
returns it to the general circulation – a filtering system.
Lymphedema – A swelling caused by excess fluid that collects after the lymph nodes have been
removed by surgery or affected by radiation treatments.
Lysis – Dissolution or destruction of cells; loosening or unbinding. The suffix –lytic appears at the end
of many words to describe a process that destroys cells.
M.
Maintenance therapy – Treatment that is given to help a primary (original) treatment keep working.
Maintenance therapy is often given to help keep cancer in remission.
Malignant – Describing a tumour that invades and destroys tissue in which it originates, which can
spread to other sites of the body via lymph system and blood.
Macrophage – An amoeba-like white blood cell that acts as a phagocyte (a cell eating organism).
Mammography – X-ray examination of the female breast.
MAPK (MAP Kinase) – Mitogen activated protein kinase, also called externally regulated kinases
(ERKs); a protein that phosphorylates targets within the cell transmits numerous types of signals
including many that promote cell survival.
Margin – The area of normal tissue surrounding a tumour when it is surgically removed.
Marker – A diagnostic indication that disease may develop.
Mast cell – Resident cell of connective tissue that contains many granules rich in histamine and
heparin sulphate. Two types of mast cells are now recognized, those from connective tissue and a
distinct set of mucosal mast cells, the activities of the latter are T-cell dependent.
Measurable disease – A tumour that can be accurately measured in size. The information can be used
to judge response to treatment.
Mean survival time – The average time patients in a clinical study remained alive. The time is
measured beginning either at diagnosis or the start of treatment.
Medical Oncologist – A doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating cancer using chemotherapy,
hormonal therapy, and biological therapy. A medical oncologist often is the main healthcare provider
for a person who has cancer. This person also may coordinate treatment provided by other specialists.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) – RNA that carries the genetic code (DNA) from the nucleus of the cell to
the cytoplasm.
Meta-Analysis – Quantitative procedures for summarizing, integrating, and combining the findings
from a literature review of a subject under study. It uses summary statistics from primary analyses of
studies, and is therefore a synthesis of results.
Metastasis – The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another through the lymphatic system
or the bloodstream. The cells in the new cancer location are the same type as those found in the
original sites.
Microcalcifications – Tiny specks of calcium; associated with breast cancer.
Micrometastases – Small undetectable deposits of cancer that grow later.
Mitogen – An agent that induces mitosis and lymphocyte transformation.
Mitosis – The process of cell division. The number of mitoses indicates the number of tumor cells
replicating.
Modality – A type or class of therapy, such as chemotherapy, surgery, and radiotherapy.
Modulation – A cell’s ability to adapt to an environment.
Moiety – An equal part; any part or portion, as a portion of a molecule.
Molecule – A group of atoms arranged to interact in a particular way; one molecule of any substance is
the smallest physical unit of that particular substance.
Monoclonal – used of a cell line whether within the body or in culture to indicate that it has a single
clonal origin.
Monoclonal antibody – Antibody molecules that have a single binding site. Because of this
specificity, monoclonal antibodies react only with the antigen that spawned their production, and none
other.
Morbidity – Disease rate in a given population.
Morphogenesis – The process of shape formation: the processes that are responsible for producing the
complex shapes of adults from the simple ball of cells that derives from division of the fertilized egg.
Mortality – Incidence of death within a population in a given period of time.
Multidisciplinary – In medicine, a term used to describe a treatment planning approach or team that
includes a number of doctors and other healthcare professionals who are experts in different specialties.
In Cancer treatment, the primary disciplines are medical oncology and radiation oncology.
Mutagen – An external agent that when applied to cells or organisms can increase the rate of mutation.
Some kinds of radiation, many chemicals, and certain viruses can act as mutagens.
Mutation – A change in the number, arrangement, or molecular sequence of a gene.
Myelosuppression – Reduction in production of blood cells by bone marrow, commonly occurring
after chemotherapy; may result in infection, anemia, and abnormal bleeding.
N.
Necrosis – The death of an individual cell or groups of cells in living tissue that is sometimes seen in
carcinomas.
Neoadjuvant therapy – Chemotherapy given prior to the treatment of a primary tumour with the goals
of improving results of surgery or radiotherapy and preventing metastasis.
Neoplasm – Any abnormal growth. Neoplasms may be benign or malignant, but the term most often is
used to describe a cancer.
Neuraminidase – Enzyme catalyzing cleavage of neuraminic acid residues from oligosaccharide
chains of glycoproteins and glycolipids. Used as a laboratory reagent.
Nodal status – The presence or absence of cancer in the lymph nodes of the armpit. A woman with
cancer in one or more nodes is node positive, or node +ve; a woman with no cancer in her nodes is
node negative, or node-ve.
Nodule – A small, solid mass.
Northern blot – A method of separating and identifying RNA by gel electrophoresis, transfers to a
filter (blotting), and hybridization to radioactively labeled RNA or DNA.
NSABP – A National Cancer Institute (NCI) funded cancer cooperative group. Stands for North
Central Cancer Treatment Group based in the USA.
Nucleotide – A subunit of DNA or RNA, consisting of one chemical base plus a phosphate molecule
and a sugar molecule.
Nucleosome – Repeating units of organization of chromatin fibers in chromosomes, consisting of
around 200 base pairs and two molecules each of the Histone H2A, H2B, H3 and H4.
Nucleus – The cell structure that houses the chromosomes.
Nude mouse – Hairless, immunodeficient mouse that allows tumor transplantation from other species
without being rejected. This allows for human tumors to be studied in a whole animal system.
Neoplasm – Any new and abnormal growth.
Neutropenia – A decrease in the number of neutrophils, a type of while blood cell.
O.
Objective response – A measurable response.
Oligoadenylate synthetases – A family of interferon-induced enzymes that bind double-stranded
RNA.
Oligonucleotide – Short DNA/RNA strand with linear sequence of up to 20 nucleotides bonded
together. Above this length, the term polynucleotide is used.
Oligopeptide – Short peptide strand with linear sequence of up to 20 amino acids bonded together.
Above this length, the term polypeptide is used.
Oncogenes – Genes that normally play a role in the growth of cells but, when overexpressed or
mutated, can foster the growth of cancer.
Oncotype DX 21-gene panel test – A test that successfully predicts the likelihood of recurrence for
women with early-stage, estrogen receptor-positive, node-negative breast cancer.
Oncolytic – Pertaining to, characterized by or causing oncolysis which is the destruction of tumor
cells.
Oncolysis – Destruction of a neoplasm; sometimes used with reference to the reduction of any swelling
or mass.
Oophorectomy – Surgery to remove the ovaries. It is sometimes used as a treatment for breast cancer.
Open-label study – A type of study in which both the health providers and the patients are aware of
the drug or treatment being given.
Organelle – A structurally discrete component of a cell.
Ovarian ablation – Treatment that destroys ovarian function.
Overall survival – The time from the primary treatment of the breast cancer to death.
P.
ρ53- A protein with complex functions that include mediating cell cycle arrest after DNA damage. LiFraumeni syndrome is associated with inherited mutations of the ρ53 gene. The majority of p53
mutations result in an abnormal protein that accumulates in cells and thus is easily identified
immunohistochemically. Acquired mutations are found in approximately 50% of breast cancers.
Partial response– A decrease in the size of a tumour, or in the extent of cancer in the body, in response
to treatment. Also called partial remission.
Patient advocate – Helps resolve issues about healthcare, medical bills, and job discrimination related
to a patient’s medical condition. Cancer advocacy groups try to raise public awareness about important
cancer issues, such as the need for cancer support services, education and research. Such groups work
to bring about change that will help cancer patients and their families.
Pathogenesis – The biochemical structural, and physiologic changes that occur during progression of
disease.
Peptide – A compound of two or more amino acids, the building blocks of proteins.
Pharmacokinetics – The study of the movement of drugs through the body (absorption, distribution,
excretion).
Phase I Trials – They are primarily intended to see how toxic the treatment is, to determine the
maximally tolerated dose of a compound, its major side effects, and to test the best means of
administering the treatment.
Phase II Trials – They are intended to determine whether a treatment is effective against cancer, they
cannot determine whether the new treatment is any better than the standard treatment.
Phase III Trials – They are intended to see whether a new treatment is any better than the current
standard treatments by making direct comparisons with those treatments.
Phase IV – Post-marketing studies to delineate additional information including the drug’s risks,
benefits, and optimal use.
Phenotype – The observed biochemical physiological and morphological characteristics of an
individual, as determined by his or her genotype and the environment in which it is expressed.
Phosphate – The molecule forming the backbone of a DNA molecule. It contains atoms of
phosphorus and oxygen.
Phosphatase – An enzyme that removes phosphates from nucleic acids or proteins.
Placebo – An inactive pill, liquid, or powder that has no treatment value. In clinical trials, experimental
treatments, such as with the breast cancer prevention trials, are often compared with placebos to assess
the treatment’s effectiveness.
Placebo controlled study – Refers to a clinical study in which the control patients receive a placebo.
Ploidy – The number of chromosome sets in a cell; an increase in ploidy in the cells of a malignant
tumour usually indicates greater aggressiveness and invasiveness.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) – In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA
or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short Oligonucleotide
flanking sequence (primers). The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the
reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis,
genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
Polymorphic – Presenting many changes in form.
PR – Progesterone receptors. A receptor inside the cell that binds progesterone. Tumours with plenty
of PR are less aggressive and more responsive to hormone therapy than those without.
Premalignant – A term used to describe a condition that may (or is likely to) become cancer. Also
called precanerous.
Prevalence – Measure of current sickness within a population at a particular time (point prevalence) or
over a set period (period prevalence); can be expressed as a number of persons or as a rate, such as
number of persons per 1,000.
Primary breast tumour – Tumour arising in the breast.
Primary endpoint(s) – The main result that is measured at the end of a study to see if a given
treatment worked (egg, the number of deaths or the difference in survival between the treatment group
and the control group). What the primary endpoint(s) will be is decided before the study begins.
Primary tumour – The original tumour.
Prognostic factor – A situation or condition, or a characteristic of a patient, that can be used to
estimate the chance of recovery from a disease or the chance of the disease recurring (coming back).
Progression-free survival – One type of measurement that can be used in a clinical study or trial to
help determine whether a new treatment is effective. It refers to the probability that a patient will
remain alive, without the disease getting worse.
Progressive disease – Cancer that is increasing in scope or severity.
Prolactin – protein expressed during S-phase of the cell cycle, and therefore potentially a marker of
cellular proliferation.
Protease – An enzyme that hydrolyzes (splits bonds) proteins into their constituent peptides.
Protein – A large, complex molecule composed of amino acids. The sequence of the amino acids-and
thus the function of the protein-is determined by the sequence of the base pairs in the gene that encodes
it. Proteins are essential to the structure, function, and regulation of the body. Examples are enzymes,
antibodies, and some hormones.
Proteolysis – Cleavage of proteins by protease.
Protocol – A study plan on which all clinical trials are based. The plan is carefully designed to
safeguard the health of the participants as well as answer specific research questions. A protocol
describes what types of people may participate in the trial; the schedule of tests, procedures,
medications, and dosages; and the length of the study. While in a clinical trial, participants following a
protocol are seen regularly by the research staff to monitor their health and to determine the safety and
effectiveness of their treatment.
Prospective – In medicine, a study or clinical trial in which participants are identified and then
followed forward in time.
ρS2 – An estrogen protein that is used as a marker of functioning estrogen receptor status. High
expression of pS2 is associated with a good prognosis.
Q.
Quality of Life (QOL) Trials – refers to trials that explore ways to improve comfort and quality of life
for individuals with a chronic illness.
Quiescent cell – A cell at rest; not replicating or actively secreting.
R.
Rad – An old unit of radiation dose now superseded by the gray (1 gray = 100 rads)
Radioisotope – An unstable atom that decays to a stable state by emitting radiation and that is used to
kill cancer cells by damaging their DNA. Some also are used to visualize particular organs.
Radiotherapy – The use of radiation, usually x-rays or gamma rays, to kill tumour cells.
Randomisation – Whenever a clinical trial has an active control or a placebo control, a patient has no
choice about which group or arm of the study he/she is assigned to. Neither does the doctor, or the
primary investigator. Instead, a computer randomly assigns patients to one arm of the study or another.
Used mainly in Phase III trials, never in Phase I and almost never in Phase II.
Randomised clinical trial – A study in which the participants are assigned by chance to separate
groups that compare different treatments, neither the researchers nor the participants can choose which
group. Using chance to assign people to groups means that the groups will be similar and that the
treatments they receive can be compared objectively. At the time of the trial, it is not known which
treatment is best; it is the patient’s choice to be in a randomized trial.
Recessive Allele – A gene that is expressed only when its counterpart allele of the matching
chromosome is also recessive. Autosomal recessive disorders develop in people who receive two
copies of the mutant gene, one from each parent who is a carrier.
Recombinant DNA – A combination of DNA molecules formed from two or more different sources.
Recurrence – Reappearance of cancer after a period of remission.
Relapse – The return of signs and symptoms of cancer after a period of improvement.
Relative survival rate – A specific measurement of survival. For cancer, the rate is calculated by
adjusting the survival rate to remove all causes of death except cancer. The rate is determined at
specific time intervals, such as two years and five years after diagnosis.
Remission – A decrease in, or disappearance of, signs and symptoms of cancer. In partial remission,
some, but not all, signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared. In complete remission, all signs and
symptoms of cancer have disappeared, although cancer still may be in the body. When the signs and
symptoms of cancer go away, the disease is said to be in remission. A remission can be temporary or
permanent.
Retrospective study – A study that compares two groups of people: those with the disease or condition
under the study (cases) and a very similar group of people who do not have the disease or condition
(control). Researchers study the medical and lifestyle histories of the people in each group to learn
what factors may be associated with the disease or condition. For example, one group may have been
exposed to a particular substance that the other was not. Also called a case-control study.
Retrovirus – Any of a group of RNA-containing viruses that produce reverse transcriptase (DNA is
formed from RNA, not vice versa as in normal transcription) and are incorporated into the genetic
material of infected cells. Such viruses are known to cause tumors.
Response – In medicine, an improvement related to treatment.
Ribonuclease (RNAse) – An enzyme that cleaves RNA.
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) – A molecular structure formed in the nucleus of all living cells that plays a
role in transferring information from DNA to the protein-forming system of the cell.
Ribosome – A small particulate organelle founding prokaryotes and eukaryotes and also within
mitochondria and chloroplasts, but differing in size and composition. Made of two subunits, each
being an RNA protein complex. Ribosomes are responsible for the translation of mRNA that may
occur in the cytoplasm or on rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Risk-benefit ratio – The risk to individual participants versus the potential benefits. The risk/benefit
ratio may differ depending on the condition being tested.
rRna – A nucleic acid found in all living cells. Plays a role in transferring information from DNA to
the protein-forming system of the cell.
RTOG – A National Cancer Institute (NCI) funded cancer cooperative group. RTOG stands for
Radiation Therapy Oncology Group based in the USA.
S.
SCID mouse – Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID). Mouse that is immunodeficient in which
tumors from other species can be transplanted and studied in a whole animal system without being
rejected.
Schedule – In clinical trials, the step-by-step plan for how patients are to be treated; for example which
drugs are to be given, the order and method by which they are to be given, the length of time of each
infusion, the amount of time between courses, and the total length of treatment.
Scinitigraphy – A body scan that maps the distribution of a radioactive tracer throughout the body;
such a map aids the diagnosis of cancer. Example: lymphoscintigraphy, a nuclear imaging technique
performed by administering a radiolabeled contrast agent into the lymphatic system to create an image
of lymph nodes.
Sequencing – Determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or the order of
amino acids in a protein.
Sentinel node – The single axillary lymph nose that can be examined to determine if cancer has spread
beyond the breast to other lymph nodes.
SERM – abbreviation for selective estrogen receptor modulator, examples: Tamoxifen that block the
estrogen receptors in the breast, Raloxifen that blocks estrogen receptors in the breast and the
endometrium.
Side effects – Any undesired actions or effects of a drug or treatment. Experimental drugs must be
evaluated for both immediate and long-term side effects.
Signal transduction – The process by which an extracellular signal (i.e. a hormone) interacts with a
receptor at the cell surface, causing a change inside the cell that ultimately causes a change in the cell’s
functioning.
Significant – In statistics, describes a mathematical measure of difference between groups. The
difference is said to be significant if it is greater than what might be expected to happen by chance
alone. Also called statistically significant.
Single-blinded study – A type of clinical trial in which only the doctor knows whether a patient is
taking the standard treatment or the new treatment being tested. This helps prevent bias in treatment
studies.
Somatic cells – All body cells except the reproductive cells.
Southern Blot – A blotting method in which DNA is separated by gel electrophoresis, transferred to a
filter, and detected by hybridization to radioactively labeled RNA or DNA.
S Phase – Test performed to determine how many cells within the tumor are at a particular stage of
division.
Stable disease – Cancer that is neither decreasing nor increasing in extent or severity.
Standard treatment – treatments currently in wide use and approved for use, considered to be
effective in the treatment of a specific disease or condition.
Stage of disease – An evaluation of the extent of the disease. If the cancer has spread, the stage
describes how far it has spread from the original site to other parts of the body. The greater the spread
of the cancer, the higher the stage. Classifying disease based on stage at diagnosis helps to determine
appropriate treatment and prognosis.
Standard of care – In medicine, treatment that experts agree is appropriate, accepted, and widely used
Healthcare providers are obligated to provide patients with the standard of care. Also called standard
therapy or best practice.
Statistical significance – the probability that an event or difference occurred by chance alone. In
clinical trials, the level of statistical significance depends on the number of participants studied and the
observations made, as well as the magnitude of differences observed.
Stem cell – One of the mitotically active somatic cells that serve to replenish those that die during the
life of the metazoan organism. A formative cell; a cell whose daughter cells may give rise to other cell
types. For example, a pluripotential stem cell is one that has the potential to develop into several
different types of mature cells, including lymphocytes, granulocytes, thrombocytes and erythrocytes
(different types of blood cells).
Stroma – The soluble, aqueous phase within the chloroplast containing water-soluble enzymes.
Stromal – Relating to the stroma of an organ or other structure.
Study endpoint – A primary or secondary outcome used to judge the effectiveness of a treatment.
Subset analysis – In a clinical study, the evaluation of results for some but not all of the patients who
participated. The selected patients have one or more characteristics in common, such as the same stage
of disease or the same hormone receptor status.
Substrate – A substance that is acted upon by an enzyme.
Suppressor gene - A gene that can reverse the effect of a specific type of mutation in other genes.
Systemic disease – Disease that affects the whole body.
Systemic therapy – Treatment using substances that travel through the bloodstream, reaching and
affecting cells all over the body.
T.
Tamoxifen – An anti-estrogen drug that may be given to women with estrogen receptor positive
tumours to block tumour cell growth.
Targeted therapy – A type of treatment that uses drugs or other substances to identify and attack
specific cancer cells without harming normal cells. A monoclonal antibody is a type of targeted
therapy.
Taq Polymerase – An enzyme that joins DNA base pairs together and is normally used in the
polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
T cells – White blood cells that have several functionally distinct subsets, including helper T cells,
cytotoxic T cells, and suppressor T cells.
Telomere – The end portion of a chromosome. This part does not contain any genes that code for
proteins.
Terminal disease – Disease that cannot be cured and will cause death.
Thrombocytopenia – A reduction in the number of platelets in the blood, causing spontaneous
bruising and prolonged bleeding following an injury.
Toxicity – Side effects that are due to treatments.
Transcription – The process of copying information from DNA into new strands of messenger RNA
(mRNA). The mRNA then carries this information to the cytoplasm, where it serves as the blueprint
for the manufacture of a specific protein.
Transgenic – The presence of two genes on opposite chromosomes of a pair.
Transgenic mouse - A genetically engineered mouse that has had genes from another organism
inserted into its genome through recombinant DNA techniques. The genetic alteration allows study of
how the inserted gene (such as an oncogene) behaves in specific tissues or how it affects tumor
development.
Tumour – Any abnormal swelling in or on a part of the body; the term is usually applied to any
abnormal growth of tissue, whether benign or malignant.
Tumor suppressor genes – Genes responsible for regulating normal growth by inhibiting cell
proliferation and tumour development; mutations that inactivate these genes may lead to the
development of cancer; p53 gene in head & neck carcinomas.
Tyrosine – An amino acid present in most proteins.
Tyrosine kinase – An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of energy to tyrosine.
U.
Ubiquitin – Small protein present I all eukaryotic cells. Can be linked to the lysine side chains of
proteins by formation of an amide bond to its C terminal glycine in an ATP requiring process.
Ultrasound – High frequency sound waves used to locate a tumour inside the body. Helps determine if
a breast lump is solid or filled with fluid.
V.
Vaccine therapy – A type of treatment that uses a substance or group of substances to stimulate the
immune system to destroy a tumour or infectious microorganisms such as bacteria or viruses.
Variable – Any characteristic, quantity, attribute, phenomenon, or event that varies or that can have
different values.
Vector – In infectious disease, an organism that transmits a pathogen from one organism to another. In
molecular biology, a sequence of genetic material that can be used to introduce specific genes into the
genome of an organism.
Viable – Able to live.
W.
Western Blotting – A blotting method in which proteins are transferred from a gel to a thin, rigid
support and detected by binding of labeled antibody.
X.
X2 – Same as chi-square.
X Chromosome – A sex chromosome. Normal female cells contain two X chromosomes; normal
male cells contain one X and one Y chromosome.
Xenograft – A graft from one species to another.
Y
Y Chromosome – A sex chromosome. Normal male cells contain one Y and one X chromosome.
Z.
Zygot – The fertilized ovum (egg) resulting from the combining of the female egg and the male sperm.
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Italy.
Coalition of Cancer Cooperative Groups - TrialCheckR - Glossary (2007), USA.
Finn, R. (1999). Cancer Clinical Trials: Experimental Treatments & How They Can Help You.
O’Reilly & Associates: Sebastopol, California.
Harris, R, Nagy, S & Vardaxis, N. (Eds). (2006). Mosby’s Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing & Health
Professions. Elsevier: Marrickville: Australia.
Lange, V. (1998). Be a Survivor: Your Guide to Breast Cancer Treatment. Lange Productions: Los
Angeles, California.
National Breast Cancer Centre Website: www.nbcc.org.au (2006), Sydney, Australia.
San Antonio Breast Cancer Foundation Glossary of Terms (2005), San Antonio, Texas, USA.
TrialCheckR