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Learning
Learning Objectives:
• By the end of this unit you should be able to:
• Identify the two types of conditioning shown by
behaviorist to explain human behavior.
• Compare and contract the principles of operant and
classical conditioning.
• Describe shaping, extinction, and stimulus
generalization and stimulus discrimination in operant
conditioning.
• Explain social-cognitive learning theory.
Norris Edwards:
Chapter 8: Wade08.ppt
Learning
• Learning refers to relatively permanent
changes in behavior resulting from
practice or experience
– Learning can be unlearned
– Observation can lead to learning
– Learning requires an operational memory
system
Classical Conditioning
• Classical condition is learning by association
– it is sometimes called “reflexive learning”
– it is sometimes called respondent conditioning
• The Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, and
his dogs circa 1905
– discovered classical conditioning by serendipity
– received the Nobel Prize in science for discovery
Pavlov’s Apparatus
• Harness and fistula (mouth tube) help keep dog in a
consistent position and gather uncontaminated saliva
samples
– They do not cause the dog discomfort
Norris Edwards:
Chapter 8: Wade08.ppt
Pavlov’s Experiment
Analysis of Pavlov’s Study
Classical Conditioning
• Association: the KEY element in classical
conditioning
– Pavlov considered classical conditioning to be a
form of learning through association, in time, of
a neutral stimulus and a stimulus that incites a
response.
– Any stimulus can be paired with another to
make an association if it is done in the correct
way (following the classical conditioning
paradigm)
Classical Conditioning
• Terminology of Classical Conditioning
– Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): any stimulus that
will always and naturally ELICIT a response
– Unconditioned Response (UCR): any response
that always and naturally occurs at the
presentation of the UCS
– Neutral Stimulus (NS): any stimulus that does
not naturally elicit a response associated with
the UCR
Classical Conditioning
• Terminology of Classical Conditioning
(continued)
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): any stimulus that
will, after association with an UCS, cause a
conditioned response (CR) when present to a
subject by itself
• Conditioned Response (CR): any response
that occurs upon the presentation of the CS
Classical Conditioning
• Certain stimuli can elicit a reflexive response
– Air puff produces an eye-blink
– Smelling a grilled steak can produce salivation
• The reflexive stimulus (UCS) and response
(UCR) are unconditioned
• The neutral stimulus is referred to as the
conditioned stimulus (CS)
• In classical conditioning, the CS is repeatedly
paired with the reflexive stimulus (UCS)
– Conditioning is best when the CS precedes the UCS
• Eventually the CS will produce a response (CR)
similar to that produced by the UCS
Classical Conditioning
• The Classical Conditioning “paradigm”
– “paradigm” is a scientific word similar to using
the word “recipe” in a kitchen, I.e., this is how
you do it
–
UCS--------------------->UCR
– NS------------->UCS--------------------->UCR
– CS------------------------------------------>CR
– That’s all there is to it. I’ll show you a fleshedout example on the next slide
Classical-conditioning terms can be hard to learn, so be sure to take
this quiz before going on.
• Name the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,
conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response in this
situations.
• Five-year-old Samantha is watching a storm from her
window A huge bolt of lightning is followed by a
tremendous thunderclap, and Samantha jumps at the noise.
This happens several more times. There is a brief lull and
then another lightning bolt. Samantha jumps in response
to the bolt.
• US The Thunderclap
• UR Jumping to the noise
• CS The lightning
• CR Jumping to the lightning
Norris Edwards:
Chapter 8: Wade08.ppt
Classical Conditioning
• Here’s a fleshed out example:
•
UCS----------------->UCR
–
(Thunderclap) ------> (Jumping To The
noise)
• NS--------------->UCS----------------->UCR
– (lightning)--->(Thunderclap) -----> (Jumping to
The noise)
• CS---------------------------------------->CR
– (Lightning)----------------------------> (Jumping to
The lightning)
Classical-conditioning terms can be hard to learn, so be sure to take
this quiz before going on.
• Name the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,
conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response in this
situations.
• Gregory’s mouth waters whenever he eats anything with
lemon in it. One day, while reading an ad that show a big
glass of lemonade, Gregory notices his mouth watering.
• US Taste of Lemon
• UR Salivation to Lemon
• CS Picture of Lemonade
• CR Salivation to picture
Norris Edwards:
Chapter 8: Wade08.ppt
Classical Conditioning
• Here’s another example:
•
UCS------------------------->UCR
–
(Taste of Lemon) ---------> (Salivation to
Lemon)
• NS --------------> UCS ----------------->UCR
•
(Picture of -->(Taste Lemon)--> (Salivation to
Lemonade)
Lemon)
• CS ---------------------------------------->CR
– (Picture of Lemonade)-----> (Salivation to
Picture)
Importance of Classical
Conditioning
• Classical conditioning is involved in many of
our behaviors
– wherever stimuli are paired together over time
we come to react to one of them as if the other
were present
– a particular song is played and you immediately
think of a particular romantic partner
– a particular cologne is smelled and you
immediately think of a romantic partner
Applications of Classical Conditioning
• Flooding: reducing fears, person is continually
exposed to harmless stimulus until fear responses to
stimulus are eliminated.
• Systematic Desensitization: gradual technique of
reducing fears in which people are taught relaxation
techniques.
• Counter-conditioning: reducing fears by repeatedly
pairing a pleasant stimulus with a fearful one. (ice
cream and spiders)
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Chapter 6
Classical Conditioning
• Some pointers on effective conditioning
– NS and UCS pairings must not be more than
about 1/2 second apart for best results
– Repeated NS/UCS pairings are called “training
trials”
– Presentations of CS without UCS pairings are
called “extinction trials”
– Intensity of UCS effects how many training trials
are necessary for conditioning to occur
Learning to Fear
• Just as positive association can be established
using classical conditioning, negative associations
can also be formed.
• Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) deliberately
establishing a rat phobia in an 11 year-old boy
named Albert to demonstrate how we learn to fear.
Norris Edwards:
Chapter 8: Wade08.ppt
Watson’s Extreme
Environmentalism
• “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and
my own special world to bring them up in, and I’ll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to
be any type of specialist I might select - doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, beggar-man
and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his
ancestors.”
John Broadus Watson, 1928
Norris Edwards:
Chapter 8: Wade08.ppt
Operant Conditioning
• G. Stanley Hall (1899) was conducting a study of
anger, and asked a number of people to describe
angry episodes they had experienced or observed.
One subject describe observing a little girl crying
uncontrollably and in midpoint stopping to inquire
if her daddy was in.
• Hall concluded that the little girl had learned from
prior experience that such outburst of sobbing
would bring her attention.
Norris Edwards:
Chapter 8: Wade08.ppt
Operant Conditioning:
Skinner Box
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
Question: How are the principles of operant conditioning applied?
APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF
OPERANT CONDITIONING (continued)
– Programmed Learning – assumes that any task
can be broken down into small steps that can
be shaped individually and combined to form
the more complicated whole
– Classroom discipline – using principles of
learning to change classroom behavior
25
Chapter 6
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
Question: How are the principles of operant conditioning
applied?
APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT
CONDITIONING
– Offering of rewards – being positively
reinforced
– Shaping – a way of teaching complex
behaviors in which one first reinforces small
steps in the right direction
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Operant Conditioning
• Organisms make responses that have
consequences
– The consequences serve to increase or
decrease the likelihood of making that
response again
– The response can be associated with cues
in the environment
• We put coins in a machine to obtain food
• But we refrain when an Out of Order sign is
placed on the machine
Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning is simply learning
from the consequences of your
behavior
– the “other side” of the psychologist’s tool
box, operant conditioning is a form of
learning in which the consequences of
behavior lead to changes in the probability
of a behavior’s occurrence.
Key Aspects of Operant
Conditioning
• In operant conditioning, the stimulus is
a cue, it does not elicit the response
• Operant responses are voluntary
• In operant conditioning, the response
elicits a reinforcing stimulus, whereas in
classical conditioning, the UCS elicits
the reflexive response
Key Terms of Operant
Conditioning
• Reinforcement is any procedure that
increases the response
• Punishment is any procedure that
decreases the response
• Types of reinforcers:
– Primary: e.g. food or water
– Secondary: money or power
Operant Conditioning
• The Operant Conditioning paradigm:
• DS ------> Response -----> Consequence
– where “DS” is the “discriminative stimulus”
– where “Response” is the subject’s behavior
– where “Consequence” is what happens to
the subject after EMITTING the response
• What consequences can follow a
subject’s response?
Operant Conditioning
• Consequences to behavior can be:
– nothing happens: extinction
– something happens
• the “something” can be pleasant
• the “something” can be aversive
• Consequences include positive and negative
reinforcement, time out, and punishment.
We’ll examine each of these now.
Cognitive Learning
• Higher-level learning involving thinking,
knowing, understanding, and anticipating
• Latent Learning: Occurs without obvious
reinforcement and is not demonstrated until
reinforcement is provided
• Rote Learning: Takes place mechanically,
through repetition and memorization, or by
learning a set of rules
• Discovery Learning: Based on insight and
understanding
• Fig. 8.23 Latent learning. (a) The maze used by Tolman and
Honzik to demonstrate latent learning by rats. (b) Results of the
experiment. Notice the rapid improvement in performance that
occurred when food was made available to the previously
unreinforced animals. This indicates that learning had occurred,
but that it remained hidden or unexpressed. (Adapted from
Tolman & Honzik, 1930.)
Reinforcement/Punishment
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Continuous: reinforcement occurs after
every response
– Produces rapid acquisition and is subject to
rapid extinction
• Partial: reinforcement occurs after
some, but not all, responses
– Responding on a partial reinforcement
schedule is more resistant to extinction
Partial Reinforcement Schedules
• Ratio: every nth response is
reinforced
– Fixed: every nth response
– Variable: on average, every nth response
• Interval: first response after some
interval results in reinforcement
– Fixed: interval is x in length (e.g. 1 min)
– Variable: the average interval is x
Reinforcement Schedules
Positive Reinforcement
• What is a reinforcer?
– Definition: a reinforcer is any stimulus
which, when delivered to a subject,
increases the probability that a subject will
emit a response.
– Primary reinforcers, e.g., food
– Secondary reinforcers, e.g., praise
– One can only know if a stimulus is a
reinforcer based on the increased
probability of occurrence of a subject’s
behavior
Money: a secondary reinforcer
Positive Reinforcement
• What is positive reinforcement?
– a procedure where a pleasant stimulus is
delivered to a subject contingent upon the
subject’s emitting a desired behavior
• Schedules of reinforcement
– reinforcement schedules may be used to
decrease the probability that a response
pattern in a subject will extinguish
Positive Reinforcement
• Schedules of reinforcement
– there are 4 types of reinforcement schedules
•
•
•
•
fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement
fixed interval schedule of reinforcement
variable ratio schedule of reinforcement
variable interval schedule of reinforcement
– each of these schedules will produce different
response patterns in subjects; the variable ratio
schedule best for most resistant to extinction
Positive Reinforcement
• Shaping behaviors
– the use of positive reinforcement in the
differential reinforcement of successive
approximations is called “shaping”
– shaping can be used to create a new response
pattern in a subject
– shaping must be done carefully and one must
rely on the differential reinforcement of
successive approximations to the target
behavior
Negative Reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
– a procedure where an aversive stimulus is
removed from a subject contingent upon
the subject’s emitting a desired behavior
– the reinforcing consequence is the removal
or avoidance of an aversive stimulus
• Escape conditioning: the behavior is reinforced
because it stops an aversive stimulus
• Avoidance conditioning: behavior reinforced
because aversive stimulus is prevented
Negative Reinforcement
• Examples of negative reinforcement in
the real world include:
– taking out the trash to avoid your mother
yelling at you
– taking an aspirin to get rid of a headache
– using a condom to avoid contracting a
fatal disease
– paying your car insurance on time to
prevent cancellation of your policy
Punishment
Punishment
• Punishment defined
– a procedure where an aversive stimulus is
presented to a subject contingent upon the
subject emitting an undesired behavior.
– punishment should be used as a last resort
in behavior engineering; positive
reinforcement should be used first
– examples include spanking, verbal abuse,
electrical shock, etc.
Punishment
• Dangers in use of punishment
– punishment is often reinforcing to a
punisher (resulting in the making of an
abuser)
– punishment often has a generalized
inhibiting effect on the punished individual
(they stop doing ANY behavior at all)
– we learn to dislike the punisher (a result of
classical conditioning)
Punishment
• Dangers in use of punishment
– what the punisher thinks is punishment
may, in fact, be a reinforcer to the
“punished” individual
– punishment does not teach more
appropriate behavior; it merely stops a
behavior from occurring
– punishment can cause emotional damage in
the punished individual (antisocial behavior)
Punishment
• Dangers in use of punishment
– punishment only stops the behavior from
occurring in the presence of the punisher;
when the punisher is not present then the
behavior will often reappear and with a
vengeance
– the best tool for engineering behavior is
positive reinforcement
Punishment
• Guidelines for the effective use of
punishment
– use the least painful stimulus possible; if you
spank your child, do it on the child’s bottom
with an open hand never more than twice and
NEVER so hard as to leave any marks on your
child. That would be classified as child abuse.
– reinforce the appropriate behavior to take the
place of the inappropriate behavior
Punishment
• Guidelines
– make it clear to the individual which behavior
you are punishing and remove all threat of
punishment immediately as soon as the
undesired behavior stops.
– do not give punishment mixed with rewards for
a given behavior; be consistent!
– once you have begun to administer punishment
do not back out but use punishment wisely
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
• Classical conditioning usually involves
reflexive behavior (eliciting a response)
whereas operant condition involves
instrumental behavior (emitting a response)
• Classical conditioning elicits a response
whereas operant conditioning manipulates
the probability that a given response will be
emitted by the subject.
Extinction: the process of
unlearning
• Extinction is the process of unlearning a
learned response because of a change on
the part of the environment (reinforcement
or punishment or stimulus pairing
contingencies)
• Removing the source of learning
– in CC, not pairing the NS with the UCS will result
in extinction
– in OC, not providing consequences causes ext.
Section 4: The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
Question: What are the steps of the PQ4R method of
learning?
STEPS OF THE PQ4R METHOD OF LEARNING
• PREVIEW – getting a general picture of what is covered before
reading a chapter
• QUESTION – something in particular that we want to learn
• READ – reading the material with the purpose of finding
answers
• REFLECT – an important way to understand and remember the
material read
• RECITE- Saying things out load (ABC song)
• REVIEW- repeat and reread to know
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Chapter 6
Summary of Conditioning
Question:
What are the key factors of classical
conditioning?
Stimulus
58
Key Factors of
Classical
Conditioning
Chapter 6
Response