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Paper 2
revision session 4
Explaining psychopathological
disorders (OCD, depression,
phobias)
Take an A3 piece of paper and
draw this on it…
Explaining
psychopathological
disorders.
Rate yourself
• On a scale of 1-10 how well do you think
you can explain…
1. behavioural approach to explaining
phobias
2. The cognitive approach to explaining
depression
3. The biological approach to explaining
OCD
Phobias
The Behavioural Approach
Phobias are learnt through our environment!
All behaviour is learned whether it is normal or abnormal. Some
behaviours that are learned can be adaptive and help people lead
a happy life, some can be maladaptive and therefore
undesirable. The emphasis of the behavioural approach is that
phobias are caused through the environment, through the
process of classical conditioning; operant conditioning and social
learning theory. This approach ignores the role of biology or any
internal thoughts or feelings.
Phobias develop / remain in 3 ways:
Classical conditioning – behaviour is learnt through association

Operant conditioning – behaviour is learnt through reinforcement

Social learning theory – learning through observation

The Behavioural Approach
Hobart Mowrer (1960) proposed the two-process model based on the
behaviourist approach to phobias. This model states that:
The acquisition (onset) of phobias is seen as occurring directly
through classical conditioning, for example, by the experience of a
traumatic event, like being bitten by a dog; or indirectly though social
learning theory, for example through observing or hearing about a
fearful event happening to another, like seeing someone else being
bitten by a dog.
The maintenance of phobias is seen as occurring through operant
conditioning, where avoiding or escaping from a feared object/situation
acts as a negative reinforcer (the reward being the reduction of
anxiety). This reinforces the avoidance response (makes it more likely
to occur again).
Classical Conditioning A01
‘Little Albert’
Stimulus
Response
Before conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response
(UCR)
Example
Loud noise
Fear
During conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS) +
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
UCR
Example
NS – white rat
noise
Fear
After conditioning
CS
Conditioned response
Example
White rat
Fear
+ Loud
SLT & phobias
• Phobias can also be explained using SLT
• SLT sees behaviour as learned by
modelling through observation and
imitation.
• Watching someone experience a traumatic
event can cause the observer to
experience the fear response in the
presence of the same stimulus.
• For example, seeing someone else being
bitten by a dog could cause the observer
to develop a phobia of dogs.
Adam has a fear of dogs. As a child he was once bitten
by a dog belonging to a family friend. Now when he
thinks about dogs he experiences high anxiety and he
becomes very afraid whenever he sees a dog close up.
This is particularly bad when he is approached by a
German Shepherds. Adam avoids dogs whenever possible.
Using the two-process model (acquired by CC & continue due to OC).
Explain how Adam might have acquired his phobia and how it might
be maintained. Refer to the process of CC & OC in your answer.
(6 marks)
Before Adam was bitten by the dog, he would have showed
no anxiety towards dogs. Before the event the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) would be being bitten by the
dog, the unconditioned response (UCR) would be fear.
When the dog (NS) and the unconditioned stimulus (being
bitten) are encountered close together in time the NS
(dog) Becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that produces a
conditioned response (being bitten). This means that
Adam has associated the dog with being bitten, causing
him to have a phobia of dogs.
Adam’s phobia has been maintained by operant
conditioning. Adam will avoid dogs wherever possible, this
is explained by negative reinforcement as he is avoiding an
unpleasant situation. In terms of positive reinforcement.
The cognitive approach to
explaining depression…
• Cognitive approach explains depression
in terms of a person’s cognitions (i.e the
way they think)
• The cognitive approach to explaining
depression including Beck’s negative
triad and Ellis’s ABC model.
Beck’s cognitive theory of
depression
1. Faulty processing – focusing on the
negative
2. Negative self-schemas leads to
interpretation of information of ourselves
in a negative way.
3. The negative triad (world, future, self)
Beck’s negative triad
• Beck (1987) believes people become depressed
because the world is seen negatively through negative
schemas.
• Negative schemas, together with cognitive
biases/distortions, maintain the negative triad which
sees negative thoughts being about…
Apply the
negative triad to
explaining
depression, how
does it actually
cause
depression? Have
a go in pairs.
Beck’s negative triad
“people become depressed
because the world is seen
negatively through negative
schemas, which dominate
thinking and are triggered
whenever individuals are in
situations that are similar to
those in the negative
schemas that have been
learned. These negative
schemas then continue into
adulthood, providing a
negative framework to view
life in a pessimistic
(negative) way.”
Albert ELLIS
Explains depressive/irrational thinking using the ABC
model. What does ABC stand for?
• Activating event triggers …
• Beliefs which are irrational; this produces …
• Consequences – an emotional response.
It is the IRRATIONAL BELIEFS which trigger the
response, not the event itself.
It is not the event but the irrational
belief that triggers depression.
• Activating event
triggers …
• A Liz declines Jez’s offer of a
second date.
• Beliefs which are
irrational; this
produces …
• B Jez believes
– I am worthless.
– I will never succeed with
anyone.
– I am a total failure.
• Consequences – an
emotional
response.
• C Depression
Using the ABC model… how would you explain
depression? Again work in pairs if you need to.
Ellis
“Outline each part of the A B C model…The
activating event triggers an emotion that is
seen as true and the consequence is that the
individual becomes depressed because they
have a negative view about themselves and
no confidence in their ability. People who
don’t have depression may react completely
differently, for example if something
happens in the environment they may be
more motivated to do better or to think
rationally about the behaviour”
OCD
What do you need to know?
• Genetic explanations – genes
• Neural – serotonin & decision
making systems
Genetic explanations
• This explanation focuses on OCD
being inherited by genetic
transmission
• How can we study this?
• Twin studies!
• There is a genetic link to OCD – some
individuals are more vulnerable to
developing the disorder than others.
• Unlikely that genes are the sole cause
– combination of genes that
determine an individual’s vulnerability
to the condition.
• This is genetic vulnerability NOT
certainty
Neural explanations
• The role of serotonin
• Neurotransmitter which regulates everything from mood,
anxiety, to memory, to sleep
• Neurotransmitters relay information from one neuron to
the other.
• If a person has low levels of serotonin then normal
transmission of mood-relevant information doesn’t take
place
• Therefore mood and other mental processes are affected
• At least some cases can be explained through this
• Medications such as SSRIs which increase serotonin are
used to treat OCD – supporting that this could be the
cause.
NEURAL EXPLANATIONS
ABNORMAL BRAIN FUNCTIONING
• OCD can be associated with impaired
decision making
• This may be associated with abnormal
functioning of the frontal lobes of the
brain
• Frontal lobes are responsible for logical
thinking and making decisions
• Left parahippocampal gyrus which is
associated with unpleasant emotions,
functions abnormally OCD.
Neural explanations
abnormal brain functioning
Lateral frontal lobes
Parahippocampal gyrus
OCD Application Question
Just after his tenth birthday, Josh developed a
nasty throat infection and a few weeks later he
started to have persistent thoughts about being
infected by germs, which caused him a lot of
anxiety. He began repetitively washing his hands
many times a day. He was diagnosed as suffering
from OCD, a condition several members of his
family have had. However, since he has begun
taking medication that increases the level of
serotonin in his brain, his symptoms have
decreased.
Referring to the situation above, show how
genetic and neural explanations may account
for Josh’s OCD (4 marks)
OCD Application Question
A genetic explanation for Josh’s OCD could
be due to genes. Genetic vulnerability can be
passed on through families. Researchers
have identified genes, which create
vulnerability for OCD called candidate genes.
One gene is the 5HT1-D beta which affects
the efficiency of serotonin.
A neural explanation for Josh’s OCD could be
the role of serotonin. OCD gas been said to
be caused by low levels of serotonin, which
affect mood regulation.