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Chapter 6: Learning BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE 2015-2016 Objective • I will be able to understand and apply the concepts of “learning” 1.Classical conditioning 2.Operant conditioning 3. Observational learning to “real life” situations What type of “things” do people learn? What is the process involved in this learning? How would you define learning? Learning • *A relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience Label your Notes: 1. Classical Conditioning Some Natural Reactions What happens when you smell good food? What happens when you see the “love of your life” walking down the hall? We’ll get back to this in a minute! I need a volunteer who is a “good sport.” Ivan Pavlov *Ivan Pavlov, Russian physiologist , 1900’sresearch on digestion, found dogs salivate in response to sound of a tone. He discovered Classical Conditioning, a.k.a. Pavlovian conditioning He was studying the role of saliva in digestion of dogs Figure 6.1 Classical conditioning apparatus Figure 6.2 The sequence of events in classical conditioning Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov • Terminology – *Unconditioned Stimulus-UCS or US (the food)-evokes an unconditioned response that is not learned – *Unconditioned Response-UCR or UR (salivate)-an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (food) – *Conditioned Stimulus-CS (bell) –a neutral stimulus that is able, through conditioning, to evoke a conditioned response (salivating) – *Conditioned Response-salivate (CR) –a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus (bell) that occurs because of conditioning Now, back to our pizza and “the love of your life.” Conditioning in Everyday Life Food and the Bell • You are in your 5th period, the bell rings, you become hungry and salivate. You associate eating with the bell. • In this example, the UCS=, the UCR= the CS= the CR= Seeing the “love of your life” • You see him/her, your heat beats, you get butterflies in your stomach. This love wears AXE. You are walking down the hall & smell AXE, you get butterflies. • In this example, the UCS= the UCR= the CS= the CR= The water bottle incident. • What was the US? • What was the UR? • What was the CS? • What was the CR? Natural Reactions and Their Causes Other Reactions that are Natural (part of out human make-up)? Natural Causes (part of our human make-up) for these Reactions Classical Conditioning or Pavlovian Conditioning *A stimulus (the bell-AXE) acquires the capacity (making it conditioned) to evoke a response (salivation-feelings of love) that was originally evoked by a natural stimulus (food-seeing your “love”) Classical Conditioning: More Terminology • Trial = pairing of UCS (food) and CS (bell) • Acquisition = initial stage in learning • Stimulus contiguity = occurring together in time and space Presenting the CS no more than 2 to 3 seconds before an US/UCS will result in most effective learning Figure 6.3 Classical conditioning of a fear response The Love Story, Charlie, Gum and Cigarettes Processes in Classical Conditioning • *Extinction-gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when the UCS and the CS are no longer paired • *Spontaneous Recovery-reappearance of an extinguished response • *Stimulus Generalization-responding the same way to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimuli ( a different tone of a bell, the word turd) • *Discrimination-not responding to similar stimuli as the CS-only respond to the original bell tone • *Higher-order conditioning-conditioned stimulus function as if it were an unconditioned stimulus-using a CS to add another CS See next slide for example) Figure 6.10 Higher-order conditioning Figure 6.7 Acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery Poor Little Albert Little Albert -What is the UCS? -What is the UCR? -What is the CS? -What is the CR? -How was generalization demonstrated? -What would have demonstrated stimulus discrimination in the case of Little Albert? Your Turn • Work with a partner to: 1. Use Classical Conditioning to explain why you or someone else associates one event with another 2. Include and identify the UCS (water in face), UCR (turning head to avoid), CS (word bird), CR (turning head) 3. Explain discrimination and generalization 4. You have 10 minutes Conditioning and Physiological Responses • Functions of the immune system can be influenced by conditioning immunosuppression (decrease in production of antibodies) Animals injected with immunosuppression drug while given an odd tasting liquid to drink Had reduced antibody production when given just the drink Let’s See How Many Past Vocabulary Words We know Lets see how many old terms you remember Behavioral Perspective Evolutionary Perspective Psychoanalytic Perspective Cognitive Perspective Socio-cultural (Cultural) Perspective Humanistic Perspective Hypothesis Independent variable Dependent variable Control Group Experimental Group Extraneous Variables proactive interference anterograde amnesia retrograde amnesia long term potentiation Operational Definitions random sample population random assignment Label Your Notes: 2. Operant Conditioning is Instrumental Learning (Thorndike) • *Edward L. Thorndike (1913) – the law of effect – behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened (have better chance of occurring in future); behaviors followed by negative consequences are weakened. • Did pioneering work on how cats learn using puzzle box (p. 229)-read about in text Operant ConditioningBF Skinner (1953) • learning in which responses are controlled by their consequences (the response is called an operant response) Operant Conditioning • B.F. Skinner (1953) – principle of *reinforcement -reinforcement occurs when an event (ex. candy) following a response (ex. answering questions) increases an organism’s tendency to make that response (ex. answering questions) – *Operant chamber or Skinner box (animal makes specific responses that are recorded and consequences are controlled) Operant Conditioning – *Reinforcement contingencies-whether or not responses lead to reinforces/rewards-controlled by the experimenter – *Cumulative recorder-creates a graphic record of animal’s response and reinforcement Figure 6.13 Skinner box and cumulative recorder How Does Operant Conditioning Look in “Real” Life? Are you likely to go out with these friends again? Figure 6.12 Reinforcement in operant conditioning Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning • *Acquisition-the initial stages of learning, effected by: • *Shaping-rewarding successive approximations (behaviors close to what is expected) • *Extinction-the weakening of the response due to no reinforcement (how would this look in real life?) *Generalization-responding to a new stimuli as if it were the original-I answer questions to any kind of candy reward *Discrimination-responding only to the original stimulus (a bear responds to an animal trainer’s hand signals but not to your hand signals) Figure 6.14 A graphic portrayal of operant responding Table 6.1 Comparison of Basic Processes in Classical and Operant Conditioning Reinforcement: Consequences that Strengthen Responses • *Primary Reinforcers – Satisfy biological needs (food, water) • *Secondary Reinforcers are – Conditioned reinforcers-acquire reinforcing qualities (money, good grades, cars, etc…) Schedules of Reinforcement • *Continuous reinforcement =reward every time(most effective when learning new behaviors) • *Intermittent (partial) reinforcement (responses sometimes reinforced and sometimes not-2 types): 1. *Ratio schedules (# of responses) • Fixed – number of responses (pellet after every 7pigeon pecks) • Variable – average number of correct responses (occurs after an average of 7 pigeon pecks) 2. *Interval schedules (amount of time) • Fixed –rat reinforced every 2 minutes • Variable – rat reinforced after average of every 2 minutes Partial Reinforcement Schedule Ratios Fixed Ratio-Every 5 pulls-lower resistance to extinction Variable Ratio-average of 5 pulls-higher resistance to extinction Partial Reinforcement Schedule Ratios Fixed Interval-Every 5 minutes--lower resistance to extinction Variable Interval-average of 5 every five minutes-higher resistance to extinction Figure 6.17 Schedules of reinforcement and patterns of response Consequences: Reinforcement (increases behaviors) and Punishment (decreases behaviors) • Increasing a response through: – *Positive reinforcement = response followed by rewarding stimulus (food) – *Negative reinforcement = response (push lever in skinner box; studying; click seatbelt) stops/removes an aversive (means uncomfortable) stimulus/event (shock-fear of failing test; seat belt buzzer stops- doing what you were asked just to stop mom from yelling): • *Escape learning-response that ends or decreases an aversive stimuli (shock; turning on AC to end heat) • *Avoidance learning-an aversive stimuli is prevented from occurring (turn on AC before it gets hot) Figure 6.18 Positive reinforcement versus negative reinforcement Figure 6.19 Escape and avoidance learning Operant Conditioning • Decreasing a response through: – *Punishment (consequences that weaken a response) *Positive Punishment(give somethingspanking, ticket) *Negative Punishment(take something-car, grounded for a week) – Problems with punishment and General Rules: 1. apply swiftly 2. just severe enough to be effective –fit the “crime” 3. consistent 4. explain the punishment 5. minimize physical punishment Punishment Verses Reinforcement • Punishment (negative or positive) decreases a behavior • Reinforcement (negative or positive) increases a behavior Figure 6.20 Comparison of negative reinforcement and punishment Changes in Our Understanding of Conditioning • Biological Constraints on Conditioning – Instinctive Drift-animals instincts interfere with conditioning (raccoons rub shinny pennies-can not get them to put pennies in bank; can’t get you to jump out window for $100) – Conditioned Taste Aversion (aka, the Garcia Effect)- John Garcia, 1989- Food paired with nausea, even hours later, we avoid that food and do not relate nausea to other stimuli present (our girlfriend, our parents, a fork) – WHY???? Figure 6.22 Conditioned taste aversion Changes in Our Understanding of Conditioning – Biological Preparedness (Martin Seligman) said we are prone to be easily conditioning in certain ways. Certain phobias are more common than others Most Common Phobias-Snakes, spiders, heights, darkness-Most common Phobias After painful experiences with hot stove or electrical outlets, fear’s infrequent WHY??????????????????????????????? Why-Evolutionary or Biological Perspective- Most were Once Threats to our Ancestors Avoiding events in our environment are adaptive our biological heritage puts restraints on learning Associative Learning= learning that two events occur together (stimuli in classical cond., or a response and its consequence-as in operant cond.) Premack Principle: high probability behaviors (we do by choice-soccer) are used to reinforce low probability behaviors (chores). Recognizing Cognitive Processes in Conditioning If I listen to music while studying, I realize that it is the studying, not the music, that improved my grade. Studying will be reinforced and done again. Robert Rescorla’s (behavioral psychologist-studied Operant Conditioning) Contingency Model-has a cognitive aspect) Key Figure-Robert Rescorla’s Contingency Model –Cognitive Process : Response Outcome Relations: • Stimulus must provide subject info. about likelihood events will occur Example: Dog has to realize that going a trick results in a food treat, for the dog to be trained to do tricks Label your Notes: 3. Observational Learning / Social Learning Theory/Social Cultural Perspective (Albert Bandura): Observational Learning: • Albert Bandura : – *Observational learning =learn by watching and then imitating others, called models – *Vicarious conditioning=both classical and operant conditioning takes place, vicariously, through observational learning (example=You respond to my word questions because you saw others get candy) What are some examples of this? Bandura’s BoBo Doll Experiment and observational learning Showed that children learned to be aggressive by watching aggressionLet’s watch Mirror Neurons • Particular group of brain cells seem to be responsible for observational learning Other Important Learning Concepts Learned Helplessness-Seligman, passive behavior due to unavoidable aversive events, feel outcome is out of our control (read page 223)Ex: do not study b/c you feel you always fail Insight Learning-sudden solution to a problem, an “ahha” experience (Kohler-banana in ceiling experiment) Cognitive Maps-Tolman-a mental representation of the layout of the environment (with food present) in a maze because they remembered cognitive maps of the maze when they were in there with no food present-Tolman called this: Latent learning-storing the info until it was needed (can wash car since I saw mom do it years earlier) Figure 6.25 Observational learning Observational Learning: Basic Processes Bandura distinguishes between acquisition (I know how to study) vs. performance (but will I) . *Reinforcement will determine whether I actually perform a learned response-is it worth it? Prosocial v. Antisocial Modeling Effects • Positive, helpful models • Negative models have negative effects (abusive men saw mothers abused) More Terms to Know • Aversive Conditioning=associating a satisfying experience with an unpleasant one to stop unwanted behavior (is Classical Conditioning-taking a nausea producing drug with alcohol) • Token economy= (is operant conditioning) using tokens/tickets/stickers to reward desired behaviorstokens are later traded in for desired items – used in psychiatric facilities • Chaining= (is operant conditioning)teach subjects to perform a number of responses successfully to get a reward (training a dog act in the circus) (shaping is to mold a single behavior) Overjustification Effect external rewards diminish intrinsic motivations (I love reading; school gives prize for summer reading; I don’t enjoy reading as much-I read less)