Download INSTRUCTOR GUIDE Chapter 11 Antarctica and Neogene

Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
Instructor Guide
INSTRUCTOR GUIDE
Chapter 11
Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
Summary
This investigation introduces you to the status and role of Antarctica in Cenozoic (specifically
Neogene) climate change and sets the stage for evaluating the two sediment cores retrieved
from the floor of McMurdo Sound by the Antarctic Geologic Drilling Project (ANDRILL) in 2006
and 2007 (Figure 11.1). The cores are introduced in Chapter 12 (Interpreting Antarctic Sediment
Cores). In this chapter you will build basic geographic and geologic knowledge of Antarctica and
use geologic reasoning. In Part 11.1, you will review your understanding of the oxygen isotope
curve, interpret global climate conditions from this curve, and assess the validity of your global
interpretations based on the global distribution of sediment cores. In Part 11.2, you will become familiar with the geography and geologic units of the Ross Sea region of Antarctica and
review or build your knowledge of southern hemisphere seasons, sea-ice, ice-shelves, and the
challenges associated with obtaining a sediment core from the floor of McMurdo Sound. You will
also build and use your understanding of simple geologic maps, cross sections, and the geologic
time scale, so you can explain the reasons for selecting drill sites in McMurdo Sound. In Part
11.3, you will review the existing data from sediment cores in the Ross Sea region of Antarctica
and use the knowledge gained in Parts 11.1 and 11.2 to identify a target stratigraphic interval
and select two drill sites. Evaluation of the ANDRILL core is undertaken in Chapter 12 “Interpreting Antarctic Sediment Cores”.
Figure 11.1. The ANDRILL drill site on the McMurdo Ice Shelf during the 2006-07 field season. Photo from
http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/science/contenthandler.cfm?id=2092.
Photo provided by the ANDRILL Program.
Page 1 of 33
Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
Instructor Guide
Goal: to investigate the status and role of Antarctica in Neogene climate change. This
exercise also sets the stage for evaluating recent Antarctica coring results presented
in Chapter 12.
Objectives: After completing this exercise your students should be able to:
1. Describe general global climate conditions during the Cenozoic.
2. Assess the quality and quantity of data on Cenozoic climate history from the
Antarctic region; for example, describe the stratigraphic completeness and
spatial distribution of sampling sites for the Neogene in and around Antarctica.
3. Interpret simple geologic maps and cross sections, and describe the geology,
glaciology, and geography of the Ross Sea region of Antarctica.
4. Integrate data to propose selected drill sites to meet scientific objectives and
logistical and cost constraints.
I. How Can I Use All or Parts of this Exercise in my Class?
(based on Project 2061 instructional materials design)
Title (of each part)
Part 11.1
Part 11.2
Part 11.3
What do we think
we know about the
History of Antarctica
Climate?
20–40 mins (depends on how much
review is needed)
What is Antarctica’s
Geographic and
Geologic Context?
Selecting The Best
Drillsites for the
Science Objectives
60-120 mins
(depends on amount
of discussion and
extra material used,
or ‘mini-lectures’
given)
Can this be done inYes. Would need
Yes. May need
dependently (i.e., as
follow-up presenta- in-class preparation.
homework)?
tion and discussion Would need folin class
low-up discussion in
class
What content will students be introduced to in this exercise?
Science as human endeavor
Judgement, decix
x
sion-making, problem-solving
Science as an evolving
x
process / Nature of
Science
x
New Research builds on x
previous research
Unexpected discoveries x
x
Exploratory research
vs. focused questions
Research enabled by
technology (technology
change through time)
How much class time
will I need? (per part)
20-60 mins
(depends on student
level and amount of
discussion)
Yes. Would need
follow-up discussion
in class
x
x
x
x
x
x
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Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
Earth History Archives (nature of the sedimentary record)
How do you know about x
x
earth history? Types of
archives outcrops vs.
cores
Where do you go to
x
x
learn about earth history? Land vs. sea vs.
ice
Geographic awareness
x
x
Awareness of deep time
x
x
Marine sediments (distribution & controls on
distribution)
Stratigraphic Principles
Relative dating
x
x
Correlation
x
Stable isotopes
x
x
Subdivisions of geologic x
time
x
Unconformities, hiatuses, missing records
Climate Change
x
Glacial-interglacial cycles
x
Climate change can be
gradual
Greenhouse - Icehouse x
x
Climate change can be
abrupt
x
Present day rates of
change
x
Regional to global
scales of change
Ocean-atmosphere-bio
x
x
sphere-cryosphere
system interactions/feedbacks
x
x
High latitude climate
change sensitivity
What types of transportable skills will students practice in this
x
x
Make observations
(describe what you see)
Recognize trends
x
(abrupt vs. gradual vs.
patterns)
x
Plot data – map, graph,
pictoral form
x
x
Interpret graphs, diagrams, photos, tables
x
Make hypotheses or
predictions
Test a hypothesis
x
Instructor Guide
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
exercise?
x
x
x
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Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
Critical reading &
analysis
Synthesize/integrate &
draw broad conclusions
Perform calculations
(rates, averages, unit
conversions) & develop
quantitative skills
Written communication
Oral communication
Making persuasive, well
supported arguments
Identifying assumptions
& ambiguity
Levels & types of uncertainty (quantitative
vs. qualitative)
Significance/evaluation
of uncertainties & ambiguity
What general prerequisite knowledge
& skills are required?
What Anchor Exercises (or Parts of
Exercises) should be
done prior to this to
guide student interpretation & reasoning?
Instructor Guide
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
None required, but
prior exposure to the
following topics
would be helpful:
1.Use of oxygen
isotopes
2. Nature of sediment cores
3. General stratigraphic principles
4.General geologic
time scale
5. Simple map and
graph reading
1.Intro to Cores exercises; 2.Cenozoic
Overview exercises;
3.Seafloor Sediments exercises
1.Basic map- reading
skills (incl. geologic
maps)
2. Basic knowledge of
rock types
3. Basic understanding of geologic time
scale
4. Basic math skills
1.Basic mapreading skills
2. Basic understanding of geologic time scale
3. Basic knowledge
of what a sed core
is
4.Basic math skills
1.None required, but
helpful to do Part 1 of
this exercise
2.Could provide additional background by
doing Intro to cores
exercise, Sea floor
sediments exercise, &
Cenozoic Overview
exercise
1. Parts 1 and 2 of
this exercise
2. Could provide
additional background by doing
Intro to cores exercise, Sea floor
sediments exercise, & Cenozoic
Overview exercise
Page 4 of 33
Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
Instructor Guide
What other resources or materials
do I need? (e.g.,
internet access to show
on-line video; access to
maps, colored pencils)
1.World map or
globe
2.Geologic time scale
3.Document camera
or over head projector for discussions
4.Online connection
for access to additional drillcore information and videos
1.World map or globe
2. Geologic time scale
3.Internet/projector
to show/watch NASA
& ANDRILL videos
4. Maps / materials
for reviewing ‘reasons
for the seasons’ and
east vs. west in Antarctica
5.Calculators
What student misconception does this
exercise address?
1.Antarctica is just
ice
2.There have always
been ice sheets in
Antarctica
3.Volcanic rocks are
only found in ‘warm’
areas
4.Because it is far
away Antarctica is
not relevant
5.Generalized data
(i.e. global data) tell
one about exact
conditions at a specific locality
6.Sediment cores
only tell one about
what happened in
their immediate vicinity
Graph, map
1.Variability within
the cryosphere
2.Hemispheric control
on seasons
3.Antarctica has always been cold
4. Polar deserts
5. No rocks in Antarctica
6.We can infer events
when we don’t have a
direct record of them
7. Good datasets are
not usually pure
luck–the research is
carefully planned
Videos, maps, tables,
cross-sections
Map, stratigraphic
summary chart,
table, cross section
Global distribution of
data
Antarctica (Ross Sea
Region)
Antarctica (Ross
Sea region)
What forms of data
are used in this?
(e.g., graphs, tables,
photos, maps)
What geographic locations are these
datasets from?
1.World map or
globe
2.Map of Antarctica
& Ross Sea region
3.Internet & projector to show
maps/cross sections
4. Maps / materials
for reviewing ‘reasons for the seasons’ and east vs.
west in Antarctica
5.Calculators
1.There is nothing
on the seafloor
2.The sedimentary
record is discontinuous
3.Antarctica’s climate has changed
4.Scientists can
always figure out
the ‘right’ answer
straight away
5.Scientists may
‘get lucky’ with
results sometimes,
but most science
requires careful
planning
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Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
How can I use this
exercise to identify
my students’ prior
knowledge (i.e.,
student misconceptions, commonly held
beliefs)?
How can I encourage
students to reflect on
what they have
learned in this exercise? [Formative
Assessment]
How can I assess
student learning after they complete all
or part of the exercise? [Summative
Assessment]
Where can I go to for
more information on
the science in this
exercise?
What is the Context
for use of these exercises?
Instructor ‘grading’
of exercises checks
on student understanding of:
1.Oxygen isotope
curve
2.Role Antarctica
plays in controlling
global climate (global
conveyor belt)
3.How sediment core
data is used to interpret past climate
Instructor Guide
Instructor ‘grading’ of
exercises checks on
student understanding of:
1.Reasons for the
seasons & seasonality
in the southern
hemisphere
2.Latitude & Longitude
3.Reading time
scales, geologic maps
and cross- sections
Instructor ‘grading’
of exercises checks
on student understanding of:
1.Map reading
skills
2.Unconformities
3.Stratigraphic
summary charts
4.What data are
needed to support
a hypothesis
5.Ability to think
geologically
6. Ability to place
detailed study in
global context
1.Ask students: what they found interesting/useful?
2.Ask students: what was new?
3.Ask students: what questions it makes them want to ask?
See suggestions in Summative Assessment section below.
See the supplemental materials and reference sections below.
This could be used as a final review & capstone activity in an introductory geoscience course, or as an introductory review in an
upper-level geoscience course.
Part 2 could simply be used to introduce students to the cryosphere.
Part 1 assumes some awareness of oxygen isotopes – Use the
Cenozoic Overview exercises.
Part 1 could be a stand-alone exercise.
Part 1 could be done after Part 2.
Part 3 could be a stand-alone exercise IF students are adequately
prepared.
II. Annotated Student Worksheets (i.e., the ANSWER KEY)
This section includes the annotated copy of the student worksheets with answers for each Part of
a chapter. This instructor guide contains the same sections as in the student book chapter, but
also includes additional information such as: useful tips, discussion points, notes on places
where students might get stuck, what specific points students should come away
with from an exercise so as to be prepared for further work, as well as ideas and/or
material for mini-lectures.
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Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
Instructor Guide
Part 11.1 What Do We Think We Know About the History of
Antarctic Climate?
Suggestion: The documentary produced by WGBH and Nova is centred around the ANDRILL
Core, and includes excellent field and lab shots, as well as good diagrams and explanations. It is
available at: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/earth/secrets-beneath-ice.html This would be a
good video for the instructor to watch as background before doing Ch 11 and 12. It is also
well-worth showing in class or assigning for students to watch after completing Ch 11 and Ch 12.
Introduction
Over the last 40 years, numerous studies have used sediment cores recovered from the ocean
floor to examine the history of the Earth’s climate during the Cenozoic (the last 65 million years).
Many of these studies have identified changes in the Earth’s climate during the Cenozoic and
have invoked conditions in Antarctica as a major influence on climate and environments
elsewhere around the world. In particular, the steps in the Antarctic climate that have been
interpreted from these studies include those shown in Table 11.1.
This is an important point. Some students think only of the impact that global climate has on
Antarctica. Antarctic Ice can be both influenced by climate and influence climate around the
globe because of Earth System feedbacks.
1
The oxygen isotope curve (Figure 11.2) was constructed using data from
multiple ocean drilling sites and is used to interpret Antarctic ice
volume. Explain how and why this curve supports the three major steps listed in Table 11.1.
Approximately 34 million
years ago
The first major cooling in Antarctica and the first
development of large ice sheets in Antarctica
Approximately 15 million
years ago
A second additional cooling step and development of
major ice sheets in Antarctica
Approximately 15 million
years ago to present time
Persistence of a cold polar climate and large stable ice
sheets in Antarctica
Table 11.1. General Interpretation of Oligocene-Holocene Antarctic Climate, as of the late 1970s (Kennett &
Shackleton, 1976 a, b; Shackleton & Kennett, 1975; Kennett, 1978).
Student answers will vary depending on the level at which they understand/have been introduced to the oxygen isotope curve. It also depends on students understanding that geologic
time is measured backwards from now; they need to be broadly familiar with the time scale. The
Biostratigraphy and Paleomagnetism exercises could be completed prior to this exercise. No
introduction is given to oxygen isotopes in this Chapter. For an introduction to the use of oxygen
isotopes, see Chapter 6 “The Benthic Oxygen Isotope Record of Cenozoic Climate Change.”
The Instructor could also get the students to annotate the figure so left = colder (greater ice
volume), and right = warmer (less ice volume).
Page 7 of 33
Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change


Instructor Guide
At the more basic level, students need to be able to explain that when water evaporates
from the ocean surface it preferentially incorporates 16O, and the water left behind in the
ocean is richer in 18O. If the water that has evaporated falls as snow and gets locked up in
ice, the oceans will have therefore a higher 18O concentration during periods of higher ice
volume; this increased 18O value will be recorded in the shells of marine organisms (such
as single-celled deep-sea benthic foraminifers) growing in the ocean at the time.
Students will note that the oxygen isotope curve supports the overall interpretation in
Table 11.1, because it shows a marked ‘kick’ (a positive excursion) at ~34 Ma, and a
smaller ‘kick’ at ~15 Ma, with an overall shift to the left (cooling; greater ice volume)
thereafter. The sudden temperature increase indicated by the data in the graph at 25 Ma
DOES NOT match any changes specifically postulated in Table 11.1.

If this is a higher-level class, the trickier part is getting them to pay close attention to the
scale at the top and to find out whether they understand the use of δ 18O (the mathematical basis for using δ 18O, what VPDB is, and why/how it is used. See The Cenozoic
Overview exercise module for a review of these details. In a lower-level class, these
details can be glossed over as they get in the way of ‘big picture’ understanding – although one can define and use terms such as ‘positive excursion’ or ‘negative excursion’
in δ18O.

Students will probably note that the overall the trend from 50 Ma to present is a cooling
one, but that this is NOT a smooth trend and includes some abrupt warming events (the
PETM at 55 Ma, and a late Oligocene warming at 26 Ma) as well as cooling events (~34
Ma, ~24 Ma, 15 Ma, and after 3 Ma).
During the discussion of their evaluation of the curve it is a good time to review use of the terms
‘greenhouse’ and ‘icehouse’. Greenhouse is the term used for times when no ice sheets are
present on Earth, and Icehouse is the term used for times when ice sheets are present on Earth.
Colder
Warmer
Figure 11.2. Composite marine record for δ18O from
benthic foraminiferal calcite (modified from Zachos et
al., 2008).
Page 8 of 33
Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
Instructor Guide
An annotated oxygen isotope curve such as that shown in Zachos et al.(2001) shown below
could be introduced, and the correlation with documented and postulated global events could be
discussed.
2
What do you notice about the distribution of deep sea drilling sites (Figure 11.3), some of
which were used to build the composite oxygen isotope curve in Figure 11.2?
Students will note that most of the cores are not from polar regions. Many students will not be
familiar with the casual use of the terms ‘high-latitude’, ‘mid-latitude’, and ‘low-latitude’, so as
you use these terms they should be defined. For geographically challenged students, or students
who need practice working with latitude and longitude, they could be assigned specific cores to
plot on the map-such as ODP and IODP cores that have been collected proximal to Antarctica.
Information and Data on these cores can be obtained at: http://iodp.tamu.edu/database/ .
Some students may be not ‘see’ that relatively few cores have been taken proximal to Antarctica
because there are cores taken from the Antarctic Peninsula region, as well as the southern
Indian ocean and the South Atlantic. The overall point is that the number of cores from localities
proximal to the Antarctic margin (or the Arctic for that matter) is proportionally very low. The
Arctic exercise module uses cores obtained in the Arctic, and complements this exercise module
well.
Page 9 of 33
Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
Instructor Guide
Figure 11.3. Map showing distribution of DSDP, ODP, and IODP core locations. Map courtesy of IODP. From
http://iodp.tamu.edu/scienceops/maps.html
3
Does the distribution of sites in Figure 11.3 provide a relatively direct indicator of climatic
conditions near the Antarctic continent? Explain your answer.
General answer is NO

The core distribution samples mostly mid- and low-latitudes. Because of the efficiency/time
scale at which ocean water is mixed (~1000 years), these cores provide an indicator of the
overall global ice volume through the proxy (indirect) data (oxygen isotope data from
deep-sea benthic foraminifers). Only sediment cores that directly sample sediment deposited
on the Antarctic margin will provide direct evidence for the history of Antarctic ice volume.

Student understanding of the ‘global’ nature of the oceans, and of the thermohaline circulation varies, and they may be confused as to whether the oxygen isotope curve has any
validity [yes, it does]; conversely, students (like scientists) often struggle to see that while
the curve may be valid, it does not provide adequate information about specifically how
Antarctic ice may have been behaving.
4
Based on the distribution of drill site locations, where would you go to test the interpretations in Table 11.1 further? Put three X’s on the map to indicate your selection of future drill
sites. Explain the reasoning for your site selections.
Page 10 of 33
Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
Instructor Guide
The aim of this question is to get students to recognize that sediment cores collected adjacent to
the Antarctic margin will provide the most direct record of Antarctic climate (in the absence of an
on-land sedimentary record). Hence any ‘X’ that is located adjacent to Antarctica is valid.
Depending on their prior knowledge, students may reason that the locations should be spread
around the continent to get the ’big picture’ or should be a series of localities closer together
(e.g. Ross Sea, Weddell Sea etc.) in order to capture adequate detail from one region close to
Antarctica.
5
Based on what you have learned from other exercises in this book that you have done
thus far, what observations and data from sediment cores can be used to help interpret past
climates?
This is designed as a review question, or as a question that would allow you to segue into a
discussion or mini-lecture of specific features indicative of ice and cold climates (e.g. tills,
ice-rafted debris, clay composition or geochemistry, microfossil types and abundance). This
could also elicit a mini-lecture/discussion that addresses the fact that the best-preserved records of glaciation are in marine deposits as opposed to terrestrial deposits – students tend to
expect the best record to be terrestrial, forgetting that subsequent ice advances or erosional
events will remove the record of previous glaciations.
6
Thinking back to Chapter 2, what type(s) of sediment would you expect to be deposited
(a) adjacent to a glaciated Antarctica and (b) to an unglaciated Antarctica?
(a) Tills/diamictites, together with Ice-rafted debris in more ice-distal settings
(b) NOT tills or diamictites; possibly diatomites or other sediment that does NOT record the large
influx of sediment associated with glacial erosion and transport.
This is designed to prompt either a discussion (or mini-lecture) regarding the likely sedimentary
sequences and their characteristics, or a review of prior knowledge that students may have
about sedimentation in marine and marginal marine glacial and sub-glacial settings, as well as
evidence that would not support deposition in or adjacent to a glaciated continent. Chapter 2
‘Seafloor Sediments’ builds student knowledge of the composition and distribution of common
seafloor sediments. Part 12.1 of ‘Interpreting Antarctic Sediment Cores’ deals with recognizing
glacially-influenced marine depositional environments.
One can use this point to introduce clay geochemistry and the way in which it can be used to
interpret climate during weathering.
7
How might changes in global climate, such as an increase in global average temperature
or a change in global precipitation patterns, have an impact on Antarctica? (answer with
question 8 below).
8
Not only can changes in global climate affect regional climate (Question 7), but changes
in regional climate can in turn affect global climate. Use your understanding of the Earth’s
Page 11 of 33
Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
Instructor Guide
system feedbacks (Chapter 5), of thermohaline circulation (Chapter 10), and sea level to explain
how melting of the Antarctic ice sheets might affect global climate?
These two questions address the fundamental issue: Not only can global climate change
(changes in CO2 for example) influence regional climate, and regional changes (in places such as
Antarctica), but that changes in Antarctica can influence global climate change.
This is designed to prompt discussions of:
 Oceanic thermohaline circulation, as well as the role that break-up and melting of ice
shelves would have on global sea level. It is also possible that students might bring up
the role of plate tectonics in opening up circum-Antarctic circulation, and the subsequent impact on Antarctic climate.
 Students could watch the 2006 ANDRILL video “Sedimentology Team” – focus especially on the last 1½ minutes, when deepwater formation and the ocean conveyor is
discussed.Go to http://www.andrill.org/iceberg/videos/2006/index.html
 Melting ice shelves do not contribute directly to sea level rise, because the ice that
forms the ice shelves is already in the ocean. Losing the ice shelves, however, can
remove the buttress that ‘holds’ glacial ice that is presently on land, increasing the
rate at which that ice flows into the ocean.
 Feedbacks in the climate system (especially positive feedbacks such as sea-level,
albedo, and marine primary productivity)
 The role of meridional temperature gradients and winds
Part 11.2. What is Antarctica’s Geographic and Geologic Context?
1
Antarctica has been described as the coldest, windiest, driest, and harshest place on
earth. Find out what the current weather is at McMurdo Station, Antarctica.
http://www.wunderground.com/global/AA.html.
When you enter ‘Antarctica’ you will pull up a list of all the weather-reporting stations in Antarctica. Select McMurdo by clicking on it. You can also click on ‘Select Weather History’ or
‘Seasonal Averages’. This question could be turned into an entire investigation in its own right.
Example responses for weather at McMurdo Station on July 28 2009.
Windspeed and Direction: ENE @ 4 mph
Precipitation: Light snow
Temperature (oF) : -16 oF
Humidity: 48%
2
What is the temperature (from question 1) in °C? _________
Conversion °F to °C = ([F]–32) х 0.55556) Show your calculations below.
[-16oF]- 32 = -48
-48*0.55556 = -26.
Both Question 1 and Question 2 are designed to help bring more immediacy and connection to
Page 12 of 33
Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
Instructor Guide
the Antarctic Continent, as well as provide or encourage thinking in the metric system and
provide experience in simple mathematical calculations. The results will obviously vary. For a
large class with online access one could get students to determine the temperature at a variety
of locations in Antarctica.
Watch the videos and peruse the websites introduced in Questions 3–5 to learn about the
Antarctic geography as well as logistical, technological, and scientific challenges associated with
scientific research in Antarctica, then answer Questions 3 to 8.
Watch “A Tour of the Cryosphere: Earth’s Frozen Assets” produced by NASA at:
http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/environment/cryosphere.html (select the version with narration).
What are the main types of ice body that make up the cryosphere in the Antarctic region?






Ice Sheets (the West Antarctic Ice Sheet or WAIS, and the East Antarctic Ice Sheet or
EAIS)
Outlet Glaciers
Ice Streams (fast moving portions of the Ice Sheets and associated outlet glaciers)
Ice Shelves
Icebergs
Sea Ice
Some additional discussion of the differences between these entities may be needed. The
National Snow and Ice Data Center (http://nsidc.org/cryosphere/) provides an excellent
glossary and explanatory material, including a photo gallery.
4
Learn about Antarctic sea ice and its seasonal variability at:
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/WorldOfChange/sea_ice_south.php.
(a) On each of the maps below (Figure 11.4) indicate which specific month is represented.
(b) Explain how you used the reasons for seasonal variability in sea-ice extent to select your
answer to 4(a).
(see next page)
Page 13 of 33
Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
March
Instructor Guide
September
Figure 11.4. Maps of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean; Extent of sea ice shown in dark blue. Ross Sea region
indicated with arrow, and McMurdo Station with a black square in a white box. Maps courtesy of the Australian Antarctic
Division (http://www.classroom.antarctica.gov.au/6-climate/6-3-annual-ice-cycle)
A = March, B = September
Sea ice forms when the surface waters of the ocean freeze. In the Southern Hemisphere it is
dark (=cooler) April to September, and light (=warmer) October to March. Hence the sea-ice
buildup is at a maximum in September, and sea ice has melted to least coverage in March.
This question begs for students to have an understanding of the reasons for the seasons. Most
introductory Earth Science texts have a section on the seasons.
5
Watch:
“Southbound” (ANDRILL, 2006) at:
http://www.andrill.org/iceberg/videos/2006/index.html, and
“Antarctica Today” (ANDRILL, 2007)
“Antarctic Geology” (ANDRILL, 2007)
“Historical Journey” (ANDRILL, 2007) at:
http://www.andrill.org/iceberg/videos/2007/index.html.
Make sure you download these ahead of time – it can take some time to download them. NOTE:
These videos largely portray ‘old white men.’ Whilst the Antarctic community has in the past
been dominated by men, it is very important to stress to students that the Antarctic Research
Community is now much more diverse, and includes many international partners - go to
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_stations_of_Antarctica#Stations for more information.
Use the information from these online videos to summarize the technical, logistical, and scientific challenges of doing research in Antarctica:
Page 14 of 33
Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
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
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




Instructor Guide
Logistics of people travelling to Antarctica and of getting equipment there
Having equipment/machines that work in cold conditions
6 months light/dark
Cold temperature
Communication / isolation
Lack of ‘instant’ technical and other support that we are now accustomed to in research
settings
Limited baseline data because of access to rocks (ice cover), and complications associated
with retrieving cores
Financial support (very expensive)
6
Based on the information conveyed in the videos above (Questions 3–5), outline the
climatic history of Antarctica for the past 350 million years. Record your responses in the table
below. (For more information on icehouse vs. greenhouse conditions see Chapter 5.)
The information presented in the ANDRILL Video “Antarctic Geology” is summarized in the table
below, oldest at bottom, and youngest at top. You may want your students to use additional
resources, such as http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/geologictime.php .
Students will need to know that the term Greenhouse refers to a time when no ice sheets are
present, and Icehouse refers to a time when Ice sheets are present.
Name and age (in millions
of years) of time block
The past 42 million years
ago (Cenozoic)
NOTE: 42 Ma is the # used
in the video for the initiation
of ‘icehouse’ conditions.
This # does not match exactly the # of 34 Ma used
elsewhere in this exercise.
Climate Condition:
Icehouse or Greenhouse?
“Icehouse”
Proxy Evidence for the Climatic
Condition
At ~42 Ma there were conifer forests
in Antarctica, similar to those currently seen in southern Chile. This
marked the start of the transition to
Icehouse conditions
70 million years ago
(Cretaceous)
“Greenhouse”
Lush vegetation (trees, forests,
plants, animals)
~200 Million years ago
(Jurassic)
“Greenhouse”
Ginkgos, Cycads, Dinosaurs
~250 million years ago
(Triassic)
“Greenhouse”
Glossopteris plants, swampy areas,
coal deposits in the rocks now exposed in the Transantarctic Mountains
~300 million years ago
(Late Paleozoic = Permian)
“Icehouse”
Glacial deposits (not directly specified in video); Small multiple ice
sheets covered southern continent
of Gondwana
~540 – 300 Ma
“Greenhouse”
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7
In Questions 1 and 2 you examined data on current weather at McMurdo Station. In
Question 6 you summarized data on Antarctic paleoclimates. Use your knowledge and resources
to:
(a) Explain the difference between weather and climate at a given location (e.g. Antarctica):
Good Links for information:
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/noaa-n/climate/climate_weather.html
http://www2.ucar.edu/climate/faq/whats-difference-between-climate-and-weather
http://nsidc.org/arcticmet/basics/weather_vs_climate.html
Weather is what happens on essentially a day-to-day basis at a certain location. Climate is the
‘summary’ of the weather patterns over a long-term period (30 years plus).
(b) Explain the difference between “local climate” and “global climate”:
Local Climate is the climate in or at one location; global climate is an overall global average. For
example, some local climates might show evidence for cooling (or warming) for a given time
frame, whereas the overall global climate might show evidence for warming (or cooling).
In the past 50 years much research has taken place near McMurdo Station,
the largest US research base in Antarctica (Figure 11.5). McMurdo Station is located on Ross
Island, an island in the western Ross Sea built from active
and recently active volcanoes. The Ross Island volcanoes and other volcanic features in the
region form the Erebus Volcanic Province, where volcanic activity has occurred throughout the
past approximately 15 million years. The Trans Antarctic Mountains (TAM) mark the eastern
margin of East Antarctica, and are well exposed approximately 60 km to the west of Ross Island.
The TAM are composed of older rocks (Figures 11.6 & 11.7). Note that on average only 2% of the
surface of Antarctica today is exposed rock; the rest is covered by ice.
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Figure 11.5. Map of Antarctica showing location of East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS), West Antarctic Ice Sheet
(WAIS), Transantarctic Mountains (TAM) & Ross Ice Shelf. Map also shows main ice divides. Arrow points to Ross
Island. Map modified from Hambrey et al, 2003.
Figure 11.6. Simplified geologic map of McMurdo Sound region showing Ross Island and the Transantarctic
Mountains, as well as location of selected drillsites (CRP, DVDP, CIROS & MSSTS). Rocks identified as ‘Basement
Complex’ and ‘Beacon/Ferrar’ on this map constitute ‘Bedrock’ and are detailed in Figure 11.7, as are the McMurdo
Volcanics. The line of cross section for Figure 11.8 (A-A’) is also shown. The Ross Sea (ocean) is white in this image,
and the Ross Ice Shelf is blue. Outlet glaciers shown in bright blue. Map drawn by Werner Ehrmann, Universitat
Leipzig.
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McMurdo Sound is a southward extension of the seasonally open-water portion of the Ross Sea;
it lies between Ross Island and the East Antarctic mainland (Figure 11.6), and is covered during
the southern hemisphere winter by sea ice approximately 2–6 m thick. During the southern
hemisphere summer, most of this sea ice melts and open-water conditions are present. The
McMurdo Ice Shelf lies to the south of Ross Island and connects to the east and south with the
larger Ross Ice Shelf. Both of these ice shelves are fed by glacial ice flowing from the large West
Antarctic Ice Sheet and the much larger East Antarctic Ice Sheet and cover the remainder of the
Ross Sea. Water depths beneath the ice shelves are as much as approximately 1000 m.
8
Based on the geologic map and related key for the western Ross Sea area near Ross
Island (Figure 11.7), estimate the percentage of land area exposed in the western Ross
Sea area. Consider only areas above sea level.
25-35%. In this estimation students should only consider the areas above sea level (i.e. rocks
that are exposed, not covered by glacial ice or below ice-shelf or seawater); this can be a difficult
concept for some students to grasp. This is significantly more exposure than the 2% average
when the entire Antarctic continent is considered.
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Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
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Figure 11.7. (a) Portion of geologic map and (b) legend from Geologic Map of Antarctica, Sheet 14, Terra Nova Bay
– McMurdo Sound Area, Victoria Land. Note that south is towards the top of the map, and that white regions on the
map indicate ice (and therefore no exposed bedrock). From Warren, 1969.
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Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
Instructor Guide
Figure 11.7. Continued
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Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
Instructor Guide
9
Is this more or less than is exposed in Antarctica in general? (Note: In
Figure 11.5 areas of white are covered by ice and gray is ice shelf.)
This is significantly more exposure than the 2% average when the entire Antarctic continent is
considered.
10
Based on the summary information provided and that presented in Figures 11.6 & 11.7,
what are the general rock types and ages exposed in the Trans Antarctic Mountains?
This question can segue into a mini-lecture on the finer points of reading and using geologic map
legends.
Trans Antarctic Mountain Rock Types
Trans Antarctic Mountain Rock
Ages
Volcanic Rocks
(McMurdo Volcanics)
Quaternary & Tertiary
Igneous Rocks
(Kirkpatrick Basalt, Ferrar Dolerite)
Upper Triassic - Jurassic
Sedimentary Rocks
(Beacon Group)
Devonian –Lower Jurassic
Igneous Rocks
Cambrian and Ordovician
Metamorphic Rocks
PreCambrian and Cambrian
11 Based on information given above and on the maps (Figures 11.6 & 11.7) what is the
general rock types and ages on Ross Island (the location of McMurdo Station & Scott Base)?
Note that the main point here is that they are volcanic rocks. The table only really needs to have
one line filled in. There are three volcanic lithologies described in the key, students can separate
them out if they so choose. There is an extra ‘unneeded’ box in this table.
Ross Island Rock Types
Ross Island Rock Ages
Volcanic (Olivine basalt)
Quaternary (+/- Tertiary?)
Volcanic (Trachyte)
Quaternary (+/- Tertiary?)
Pyroclastic Deposits
Quaternary (+/- Tertiary?)
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12 How much information does the type of rock you identified in Question 11 give you about
climate at the time the rocks formed? Explain.
Volcanic rocks provide no information on climate (although the texture of a volcanic rock might
provide information as to whether it interacted with water during the eruptive process).
Note: It is a common student misconception that volcanic activity is associated with ‘warmer’
climates and equatorial regions. This question is designed to help the students realize that the
more-easily accessible rocks on land provide no significant data on Climate Change for the
Tertiary / Quarternary.
Sedimentary layers are somewhat like wall posts on your facebook wall. Each wall post tells
another step or part of a story. The oldest wall posts are at the bottom and the youngest
(newest, most recent) wall posts are at the top. Presumably, the more wall posts there are, the
more complete the story (or record) is. This general analogy also applies to a book or journal;
the more pages there are, the more complete, or more detailed, the story is.
13
Using the wall post or journal analogy, consider a complete sequence of sediments (i.e. a
lifetime of wall posts!). Broadly speaking, does a thicker or thinner sedimentary sequence
provide a more complete record of geologic events affecting the area adjacent to the basin in
which the sediments are accumulating? Explain your reasoning.
Thicker sequence. Note that some layers could be unusually thick (i.e. very lengthy wallposts),
and significant time periods could be absent (i.e. there could be long periods with no wallposts,
providing no indication as to what is happening). Additional analogies could be introduced – the
language of the wallpost might not be familiar to us, and require translating; the ability of the
writer to record appropriate details might be lacking.
14 Based on the maps (Figures 11.6–11.7) and the cross section (Figure 11.8), where in general
are you most likely to find a complete Cenozoic sedimentary sequence?
In the Ross Sea / McMurdo Sound (= the Victoria Land Basin)
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Figure 11.8. Simplified geologic cross-section of the western Ross Sea region. Adapted from Naish et. al., 2005,
ANDRILL Contribution 4 (http://andrill.org/publications). The Line of cross-section is shown on Figure 11.6. The
colored lines in the Miocene-Pleistocene sediments are marker horizons (or ‘reflectors’) based on seismic surveys. Hut
Point Peninsula is the south-southwest projection of Ross Island. The gray area at sea level is the Ross Ice Shelf; the
pale blue line at sea level represents region covered by varying amounts of sea-ice. MSL = Mean Sea Level. Note that
this is essentially the same as Fig. 11.11 (which has additional information), however, thery are used for different
purposes. From Harwood et al., 2008-2009.
15 On Figure 11.8 draw a distinct vertical line where the Cenozoic sedimentary sequence is
thickest and is undisrupted by faults.
(a) What was the probable source of the terrigenous Cenozoic sediments?
Rocks in the Transantarctic Mountains (removed by erosion, transported to and deposited on the
floor of Ross Sea / McMurdo Sound). The big question is how were they eroded, transported &
deposited? Ice? Surface water? Wind? Note that the question specifies terrigenous sediments –
this is to focus student attention to the fact that sedimentary basins act as archives of Earth
history. It also draws attention away from biogenic sediment (diatomites or limestones), and
forces students to connect sediment infilling a basin to the adjacent landmass.
(b) Considering that Southern McMurdo Sound and the McMurdo-Ross Ice Shelf are covered
with sea ice or ice shelves, how might you obtain a drill core in the location you have selected?




With Difficulty - It is an area of sea ice (or ice shelf if they try to locate a drillsite between Hut
Point Peninsula and White Island)
From a drillship that can somehow stay above a spot in sea ice (not possible with current
technology / ice ‘strength’)
Put a drill rig on the sea ice
Invent some submersible drilling contraption
Time the drilling seasonally (some students may argue for drilling in summer when there is less
sea ice, while others could argue for drilling in winter when the ice shelf/sea ice is more stable).
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Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
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Part 11.3. Selecting The Best Drill Sites for the Science Objectives
In the past 35 years, several drilling projects have taken place in the McMurdo Sound region.
The sites drilled by these projects are shown in Figure 11.9 and the ages of the sediments
recovered are shown in Figure 11.10. For most of these projects, a drilling rig was placed on the
sea ice or the ice shelf at the drilling location during the southern hemisphere spring and early
summer, in other words, the ice (rather than a ship) acted as the “drilling platform”.
Note that the exceptions are DSDP sites 270, 272 & 272 in the Central Ross Sea (not shown on
this map) which were drilled by the Glomar Challenger, and DVDP 10 and 11 which were drilled
on land in Taylor Valley.
Figure 11.9. Geography of McMurdo Sound Region, showing geographic and tectonic features & location of drill
cores. Red dotted line outlines extent of the Erebus Volcanic Province (Kyle and Cole, 1974). Volcanic centers of
Erebus (E), Terror (T), Bird (B), Discovery (D) and Morning (M) are marked. Also shown are locations of previous
stratigraphic drill holes (DVDP, CIROS, MSSTS, and CRP) in McMurdo Sound. Completed and Potential ANDRILL sites
shown with red squares. From Harwood et al., 2008-2009.
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Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
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Figure 11.10. Age of sediments retrieved from drilling projects in the Ross Sea region. Figure adapted from Harwood
et al., 2002. The location of the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) cores is not shown in Figure 11.9.
Discussion of this diagram could segue into a mini-lecture on unconformities. The important
information is that the disconformities indicate times for which there is no sedimentary record;
this could mean that no sediment was ever deposited or any sediment that was deposited has
been eroded.
1
Do the datasets from the Ross Sea region (Figure 11.10) provide adequate data to evaluate
the history of environmental and climatic conditions postulated (Table 11.1) for Antarctica
throughout the past 34 million years? Explain your answer.
This question is distinct from the next question because this question is just about whether there
is data available for one to examine for the time period in question; it does not ask whether the
data supports /refutes the postulated Antarctic climate history.
Note: Technically the core data is not ‘direct’ information, but ‘proxy’ information – we are using
evidence in the sedimentary record to infer/interpret climate changes – BUT it is the most direct
data that we have in Antarctica.
Overall the answer would be ‘only to a very limited extent’. Firstly, this is because there is no
sedimentary record of the time period between 15 million years ago and ~5 million years ago.
Thus we do not even have the indirect evidence that a sedimentary record provides for this
window of time. For the time period between ~34 million years ago and 15 million years ago (i.e.
late Eocene to middle Miocene) there is a discontinuous record.
2
How does the drill core data summarized in Figure 11.10 support or refute the hypotheses about Antarctic Ice volume and climate that have been proposed (see Table 11.1)?
Explain your answers.
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Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
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This question is asking about how and whether the data that are presented in the summary
stratigraphic chart (i.e. the core data) provide enough evidence (i.e. are robust enough) to
support or refute the hypotheses summarized in Table 11.1.
Once again, the overall answer is essentially ‘No’, the data are not adequate.
The lack of a sedimentary record for the interval ~15 Ma to ~5 Ma is a problem. Other observations would include:



There is only one record (CIROS 1) for the proposed time (34 Ma) that reaches the age of
the proposed ‘onset’ of Antarctic glaciations
The sedimentary record for the time period between ~34 Ma and ~15 Ma does include
sediments that are influenced by ice, which are interbedded with sediments that are only
somewhat influenced by ice. Note that the records for this interval do show some
sediments not influenced by ice in DSDP Hole 270; details for this interval are not
clear-cut. Cape Roberts 2 (CRP 2)includes some late early Oligocene sediments not influenced by ice. This summary record shows us that the role of ice was variable in the
34-15 Ma interval.
There is a record for the period 2.5 Ma to current time; it does provide evidence for
glacially influenced sediments.
You may want to point out that even though there are records (DVDP & CIROS) that ‘span’ the
Pliocene, they are very thin sequences that do not necessarily provide a complete record of
events. Using the Facebook wallpost analogy, they might be considered equivalent to 7 or 8
long wallposts over a year-long period, compared to daily, short wallposts over the same time
period.
Imagine that you have been assigned the job of developing the next drilling program for the
Ross Sea region. Consider the following logistical and financial constraints:
• The project is funded for two drill sites.
• Funding is US$20 million.
• The drill rig is limited to a maximum 1500 m of penetration below the seafloor at any site
drilled.
3
Examine Figure 11.10 and identify the age interval within the Cenozoic that should be
your primary drilling target. In other words, what age interval has been least sampled by previous drilling programs, so that you would obtain the most scientific “bang for the buck” by
sampling it? Explain your choice of an age interval.
The middle and late Miocene, i.e. the time block between ~15 Ma and ~5 Ma. This is because
there is currently NO sedimentary record for this time block
4
Assuming that your project is enormously successful and recovers 3000 m of core, how
much does 1 m of core cost? Show your calculations.
Total cost = $20,000,000
Core length = 3000 m
$ 20,000,000 / 3000 m = $6,666.67 for 1m of core
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The sediments younger than approximately 5 Ma that have been sampled previously in the Ross
Sea region form relatively thin layers and are poorly dated. As a result, the environmental and
climatic history of Antarctica for the last 5 million years is poorly known.
5
Why might you be particularly interested in developing a detailed history of Antarctica for
the past 5 million years? Explain.
The past 5 million years represents the time period during which the current cold polar regime
developed in Antarctica. If we can develop an understanding of exactly how the ice has behaved
in Antarctica during this time period, we will be able to correlate that information with records in
low and mid latitudes for the past 5 Ma, and we will be able to better understand what the global
implications are for Antarctic ice melting during a period of future warming.
Figure 11.11 is a generalized geologic cross section of the western Ross Sea region. The colored
lines beneath the seafloor of the Victoria Land Basin indicate the positions of distinctive seismic
reflectors (or distinctive sediment layers). Where known, the interpreted ages of these reflectors
are listed at the bottom of Figure 11.11.
Figure 11.11. Cross-section of the Victoria Land Basin of western Ross Sea region (adapted from Naish et al., 2005);
line of cross-section shown on Figure 11.8; Hut Point Peninsula is part of Ross Island; MSL = mean sea level; gray
area to right of Hut Point Peninsula is the Ross Ice Shelf. This figure is similar to Fig. 11.8, but it contains more
information on the seismic reflectors. From Harwood et al., 2008-2009.
6
Use Figure 11.11 to pick locations for two drill sites – one to sample the age range
you identified as your primary drilling target in Question 3 above and the second to sample
sediments younger than approximately 5 Ma. In each case, you want to core through the target
interval, but are limited to total penetration into the seafloor of 1500 m or less; you also need to
make sure the core does not intersect any faults. Clearly show your drill sites on Figure 11.11
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and explain/justify your choice of drill sites in the space below.
Four possible drillsites are identified for each interval on the diagram above. The RED location in
each instance represents the site that was actually selected by ANDRILL to obtain a core. Core
from the Pliocene sequence was retrieved in Oct-Dec 2006, and is Hole ANDRILL 1-B, referred to
as ANDRILL MIS (McMurdo Ice Shelf). Core from the Miocene sequence was retrieved in Oct-Dec
2007, and is ANDRILL 2-A, referred to as ANDRILL SMS (Southern McMurdo Sound). The
ANDRILL core is introduced in the Case Study on Interpreting Antarctic Sediment Cores, which
includes an introductory portion on facies and interpretation of sediments deposited in
ice-proximal environments.
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Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change
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III. Summative Assessment
1. Explain how the oxygen isotope curve is used to interpret past global climates.
2. Describe the geology, glaciology, and geography of the Ross Sea region of Antarctica.
3. How is the geology, geography and climate different in Antartica than where you live?
4. In general, would a thinner or thicker sedimentary sequence provide a more complete
record of geologic history of a region? Why?
5. Summarize the pros and cons of using the existing drillcore databases for global climate
interpretations/Antarctic ice volume.
6. Summarize what we think we know (i.e., the paradigm of thought) about the history of ice
in Antarctica, and how we know it.
7. What is the rationale for obtaining a new core that captures the Neogene Antarctica
sedimentary sequences?
8. Where would you recommend scientists obtain this new core and why?
IV. Supplemental Materials
Supplemental materials on Antarctica:
Information about ongoing research in Antarctica, especially that related to the sedimentary
record and climate change can be found at:







The documentary produced by WGBH and Nova is centred around the ANDRILL Core, and
includes excellent field and lab shots, as well as good diagrams and explanations. It is
available at: (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/earth/secrets-beneath-ice.html)
The ANDRILL (Antarctic Geologic Drilling Program) web page (http://www.andrill.org)
The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research web page (http://www.scar.org/)
The National Snow and Ice Data Center (http://nsidc.org/)
The National Science Foundation Office of Polar Programs summary of Recent Antarctic
Research Discoveries (http://www.nsf.gov/discoveries/index.jsp?org=ANT)
Information on the 2009 IODP Expedition 318 to the Wilkes Land margin:
(http://publications.iodp.org/scientific_prospectus/318/318sp_4.htm)
The Antarctic Marine Geology Research Facility – this is the national repository for geological materials collected in and around Antarctica: (http://www.arf.fsu.edu/index.cfm)
Two suites of short (3-8 minutes each) videos relating to the research being conducted by
ANDRILL can be viewed or downloaded at the Andrill Education Materials web page
(http://www.andrill.org/iceberg/). The most appropriate videos to accompany this exercise are:
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Ch 11 Antarctica and Neogene Global Climate Change



Instructor Guide
“Southbound” (2006) and “The Drill Rig” (2006) at
http://www.andrill.org/iceberg/videos/2006/index.html
“Antarctica Today” (2007), “Antarctic Geology” (2007), and “Historical Journey” (2007) at
http://www.andrill.org/iceberg/videos/2007/index.html
Geotimes Article at
http://www.agiweb.org/geotimes/dec01/feature_proxies.html
Supplemental Materials General:

NASA has produced an excellent video “A Tour of the Cryosphere:Earth’s Frozen Assets”.
It can be downloaded at:
http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/environment/cryosphere.html. It is an excellent introduction to the cryosphere in general, and it places Antarctica in its cryospheric context.
This is also good review for an intermediate-level class.

The USGS/BGS Fact Sheet “Coastal-Change and Glaciological Maps of the Antarctic
Peninsula” summarizes the mapping of selected areas of Antarctica that are likely to be
most susceptible to climate change. It can be used at an introductory level – or at a more
advanced level http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs17-02/fs017-02.html

Maps showing the location of DSDP, ODP, and IODP cores are available at
http://iodp.tamu.edu/scienceops/maps.html , and can also be viewed through google
earth (see http://www.iodp.org/borehole-map/)

An Explanation of the use and application of oxygen isotopes in paleoclimate studies can
be found at:
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Study/Paleoclimatology_OxygenBalance/oxygen_bala
nce.html

Map of Antarctica such as:
http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/AntarcticSun/features/images/COMNAP_AntarcticMap.jpg

A museum-tutorial on various aspects of paleoclimate
http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/virtualmuseum/climatechange2/01_1.shtm l
V. Bibliography
ANDRILL Science Team, 2007, Studies from the ANDRILL, McMurdo Ice Shelf project, Antarctica, Initial Science Report on AND-1B. Terra Antarctica, vol. 14, No. 3, 328 p.
Barker, P.F., Kennett, J.P., et al., 1990. Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 113: College Station, TX (Ocean
Drilling Program). doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.113.1990
Barrett, P.J. (Ed.), 1986. Antarctic Cenozoic history from the MSSTS-1 drillhole, McMurdo
Sound, Antarctica. NZ DSIR Bulletin, v. 237, 174 p. Science Information Publishing
Center, Wellington, New Zealand.
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Barrett, P.J. (Ed.), 1989. Antarctic Cenozoic history from the CIROS-1 drillhole. New Zealand
Department of Scientific and Industrial research Bulletin 245, 254 pp.
Barron, J., Larsen, B., et al., 1991. Proc. ODP, Sci. Results, 119: College Station, TX (Ocean
Drilling Program). doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.119.1991
(http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/119_SR/119TOC.HTM)
Cape Roberts Science Team, 1998a, Summary Results from CRP-1, Cape Roberts Project,
Antarctica, Terra Antarctica, vol. 5, 138 p.
Cape Roberts Science Team, 1998b,
Initial Report on CRP-3, Terra Antarctica, vol. 5, 187 p.
Cape Roberts Science Team, 1999, Studies from the Cape Roberts Project, Ross Sea, Antarctica
– Initial Report on CRP-2/2A, Terra Antarctica, vol. 6, 173 p., with supplement.
Cape Roberts Science Team, 2000, Studies from the Cape Roberts Project, Ross Sea, Antarctica
– Initial Report on CRP-3, Terra Antarctica, vol. 7, 209 p., with supplement.
Clark, P.U., Pisias, N.G., Stocker, T.F., and Weaver, A.J., 2002. The role of the thermohaline
circulation in abrupt climate change. Nature, 415, p.863-869.
Davey, F.J., Barrett, P.J., Cita, M.B., Van der Meer,J.J.M., Tessensohn,F., Thomson, M.R.A.,
Webb, P.N., and Woolfe, K.J., 2001. Drilling for Antarctic Cenozoic Climate and Tectonic
History at Cape Roberts, Southwestern Ross Sea, EOS, 82, p. 585 & 589-590. Available
from the World Wide Web: http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2001/01EO00339.shtml
[cited 2008-07-15]
Domack, E.W., Jull, A.J.T., and Nakao, S., 1991. Advance of East Antarctic outlet glaciers during
the Hypsithermal; implications for the volume state of the Antarctic ice sheet under global
warming. Geology, v. 19; no. 11; p. 1059-1062
DVDP Bulletin Series prepared at the Dept. of Geology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb
Illinois. Available from the world wide web: http://www.arf.fsu.edu/projectsDVDP.cfm
[accessed 2008-07-15]
Hambrey, M.J., and McKelvey, 2000. Major Neogene fluctuations of the East Antarctic ice sheet:
Stratigraphic evidence from the Lambert Glacier region. Geology, v. 28, no. 10, p.
887-890.
Hambrey, M.J., Webb, P/-N., Harwood, D.M., et al., 2003. Neogene glacial record from the Sirius
Group of the Shackleton Glacier region, central Transantarctic Mountains, Antarctica.
Geological Society of America Bulletin, 115 (8), 994–1015.
Hambrey, M.J., and Hubbard, B. The Antarctic Ice Sheet:
http://www.aber.ac.uk/~glawww/antarctic.shtml [accessed 2009-09-12]
Harwood, D.M., Florindo, F., Talarico, F., et al., 2008–2009. Background to the ANDRILL
Southern McMurdo Sound Project, Antarctica,” from Studies from the ANDRILL, Southern
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McMurdo Sound Project, Antarctica, Initial Science Report on AND-2A 15:1. Available at
http://www.mna.it/english/Publications/TAP/volume14.html
Harwood, D.M., Florindo,F., Levy, R.H., Fielding, C.R., Pekar, S.F., Speece, M.A., and SMS
Science Team, 2005, ANDRILL Southern McMurdo Sound Scientific Prospectus, ANDRILL
Contribution 5, University of Nebraska – Lincoln, 29p. Available at
http://andrill.org/publications [Accessed 2008-07-15]
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