* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Ch. 1
Cyberpsychology wikipedia , lookup
Observational methods in psychology wikipedia , lookup
Theory of planned behavior wikipedia , lookup
Learning theory (education) wikipedia , lookup
Symbolic behavior wikipedia , lookup
Attribution (psychology) wikipedia , lookup
Neuroeconomics wikipedia , lookup
Psychological behaviorism wikipedia , lookup
Attitude change wikipedia , lookup
Theory of reasoned action wikipedia , lookup
Social psychology wikipedia , lookup
Organizational behavior wikipedia , lookup
Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship wikipedia , lookup
Inclusive fitness in humans wikipedia , lookup
Developmental psychology wikipedia , lookup
Social perception wikipedia , lookup
Adult development wikipedia , lookup
1 Understanding Human Development: Approaches and Theories Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 2 Dr. Kuther's Chalk Talks: Part I Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 3 What is Lifespan Human Development? • The ways in which people grow, change, and stay the same throughout their lives, from conception to death Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 4 Phases of Life • Phases of Life – – – – – – – – – Prenatal (conception to birth) Infancy and toddlerhood (Birth to 2 years) Early childhood (2 to 6 years) Middle childhood (6 to 11 years) Adolescence (11 to 18 years) Early adulthood (18 to 40 years) Middle adulthood (40 to 65 years) Late adulthood (65 and beyond) Death Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 5 Development is Multidimensional • Development entails changes in many areas of development: – Physical development • Body maturation and growth – Cognitive development • Maturation of thought processes – Socioemotional development • Changes in personality, emotions, views of oneself, social skills, and interpersonal relationships Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 6 Development is Multidirectional • Development consists of: – Gains and losses – Growth and decline – Example: • Older adults’ social networks narrow and have fewer friends; however, their relationships become more significant and meaningful Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 7 Development is Plastic • Development is malleable or changeable – Examples: • The brain and body can compensate for illness and injury • People can modify their traits and capacities throughout life Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 8 Development is Influenced by Multiple Contexts • Context: – Where and when a person develops and includes: • The physical and social environment • Neighborhood • Country • Culture • Historical time period • Values, customs, and ideals Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 9 Contextual Influences • Cohort – A generation of people born at the same time – History-graded influences: • Wars, epidemics, and economic shifts (i.e., The Great Depression) – Age-graded influences: • Events tied to chronological age (i.e., age when someone graduates from high school) Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 10 Development is Multidisciplinary • The contributions of many disciplines are needed to understand how people grow, think, and interact with their world – – – – – – Psychologists Sociologists Anthropologists Biologists Neuroscientists Medical researchers Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 11 Three Fundamental Questions about Human Development 1. Do people remain largely the same over time or do they change dramatically? 2. What role do people play in their own development? 3. To what extent is development a function of inborn genetic endowments, as compared with the environment in which individuals live? Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 12 VIDEO CASE Context and Development: Large Family Family size is an important context for development. A large family offers unique supports. Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 13 Continuities and Discontinuities in Development • Continuous – Slow and gradual change • Example: A middle-aged adult experiencing gradual loss of muscle • Discontinuous – Abrupt change • Example: Puberty Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 14 Individuals Are Active in Development • Individuals interact with and influence the world around them • Individuals create the experiences that lead to developmental change • Example: – Children who are learning language frequently ask the question “Why?” Adults answer their questions, furthering their knowledge Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 15 Nature and Nurture Influence Development • Nature: – Developmental change is caused by inborn genetic endowments or heredity, maturational processes, and evolution • Nurture: – Individuals are molded by the physical and social environment in which they are raised, including the home, school, workplace, neighborhood, and society Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 16 Current Focus on the Nature-Nurture Issue • Developmental scientists attempt to determine how nature and nurture work together to influence how people grow and change throughout life Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 17 Theory • A theory is a way of organizing a set of observations or facts into a comprehensive explanation of how something works – Hypotheses: • Proposed explanations for a given phenomenon that can be tested by research Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 18 Psychoanalytic Theories • Freud’s Psychosexual Theory – Behavior is driven by unconscious impulses that are outside of our awareness • Psychosexual stages • Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory – The social world, society, and culture shape development • Eight stages of psychosocial development Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 19 Freud’s Psychosexual Stages Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 20 Contributions and Criticisms of Freud’s Psychosexual Theory • Contributions: – Focus on the unconscious – Early experiences in the family are important – Emotions are important to development • Criticisms: – Freud did not study children – Too much emphasis on infant sexuality – The unconscious cannot be directly tested Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 21 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 22 Contributions and Criticisms of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory • Contributions: – Lifespan perspective – Positive view of development – Includes the role of society and culture • Criticisms: – Difficult to test Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 23 Behaviorism • The study of behavior that can be observed • All behavior is influenced by the physical and social environment • Also known as learning theory and includes: – Classical conditioning – Operant conditioning Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 24 Classical Conditioning • Learning in which the person or animal comes to associate environmental stimuli with physiological responses • Discovered by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) • Physiological and emotional responses Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 25 Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning has been observed in newborns, who naturally make sucking movements (unconditioned response) in response to sugar water (unconditioned stimulus). When stroking the forehead (neutral stimulus) is paired with sugar water, infants come to make sucking movements (conditioned response) in response to forehead strokes (conditioned stimulus). SOURCE: Lampl et al. (1992). Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 26 Operant Conditioning • The consequences of our behavior influence our future behavior • Discovered by B. F. Skinner (1905-1990) • Voluntary, nonphysiological responses – Behavior that is rewarded will be more likely to recur (reinforcement) – Behavior that is punished will be less likely to recur (punishment) Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 27 Social Learning Theory • Albert Bandura (1925-) • People actively process information by thinking and feeling emotion, and their thoughts and feelings influence their behavior – We do not need to experience punishment or reinforcement in order to change our behavior – We can learn by thinking about the potential consequences of our actions Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 28 Contributions of Social Learning Theory • Observational learning – People learn by watching others • Reciprocal determinism – Individuals and the environment interact and influence each other • In contrast with behaviorist theorists, Bandura viewed individuals as active in their development rather than passively molded by their physical and social surroundings Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 29 Illustration of Social Learning Theory • Development is a result of interaction between the individual’s characteristics, his or her behavior, and the physical and social environment Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 30 Cognitive Theories: Cognitive-Developmental Theory • Jean Piaget (1896-1980) • In order to understand children, we must understand how they think; thinking influences all of behavior • Main tenet: – Children and adults are active explorers of their world, learning by interacting with the world around them, and organizing what they learn into cognitive schemas Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 31 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 32 Contributions and Criticisms of Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory • Contributions: – First to consider how infants and children think – Views people as active contributors to their development – Stages hold implications for education • Criticisms: – Focused too heavily on cognition and ignored emotional and social factors in development – Neglected the influence of contextual factors – Some say that cognitive development is not a discontinuous, stage-like process Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 33 Cognitive Theories: Information Processing Theory • A perspective that views thinking as information processing and posits that the mind works in ways similar to a computer – Information enters, is manipulated, stored, recalled, and used to solve problems – We are born with the ability to process information – Maturation of the brain and nervous system contributes to changes in our information processing abilities Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 34 • Contributions and Criticisms of Information Processing Theory Contributions: – Offers a complex and detailed view of how we think – Permits scientists to make specific predictions about behavior and performance that can be tested in research studies • Criticisms: – A computer model cannot capture the complexity of the human mind and people’s unique cognitive abilities – Findings from laboratory research may not extend to the everyday contexts of people’s lives Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 35 Sociocultural Systems Theory • Emphasizes the role of sociocultural context in development • People of all ages are immersed in their social contexts; they are inseparable from the cultural beliefs and societal, neighborhood, and familial contexts in which they live • Two viewpoints: – Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) – Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 36 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory • • Emphasized the importance of culture in development Examined how culture is transmitted from one generation to the next through social interaction – More skilled individuals guide children to acquire knowledge; cognitive development is a social process that relies on interaction with adults, more mature peers, and other members of society – Children are active in their development by engaging with the world around them Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 37 Contributions and Criticisms of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory • Contributions: – Emphasizes the role of the cultural context in influencing people’s development throughout life • Criticisms: – Overemphasizes the role of context – Minimizes the role of individuals in their own development – Neglects the influence of genetic and biological factors Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 38 Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory • Development is a result of the ongoing interactions among biological, cognitive, and psychological changes within the person and his or her changing context – Individuals are all embedded in, or surrounded by, a series of contexts: • • • • • Home School Neighborhood Culture Society Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 39 Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 40 Contributions and Criticisms of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory • Contributions: – The bioecological model is complex – only when we consider the multiple interacting influences within the individual and context will we gain insight into the processes and outcomes of developmental change • Criticisms: – The bioecological model is so complex that we can never measure and account for all of the potential influences on development at once Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 41 VIDEO CASE Sociohistorical Influences on Development: Desegregation Development is influenced by sociohistorical context. In this clip, the Washington family discusses their experiences with discrimination and attending newly desegregated schools in the 1950s. Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 42 Ethological Theory • • • A precursor to evolutionary developmental theory The scientific study of the evolutionary basis of behavior and its survival value Konrad Lorenz – Patterns of animal behavior appeared to be inborn, emerged early in life, and ensured their survival • John Bowlby – Humans also display biologically preprogrammed behaviors that have survival value and promote development Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 43 Evolutionary Developmental Theory • A theory that applies principles of evolution and scientific knowledge about the interactive influence of genetic and environmental mechanisms to understand the changes people undergo throughout their lifetime Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 44 Research in Human Development: The Scientific Method • The process of posing and answering questions by making careful and systematic observations and gathering information 1. Identify the research question or problem to be studied and formulate the hypothesis 2. Gather information to address the research question 3. Analyze the information gathered and determine whether the hypothesis is supported 4. Interpret the summarized information and share the findings Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 45 Methods of Data Collection: Self-Report Measures - Interviews • The person under study answers questions about his or her experiences, attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and behaviors – Interviews can take place in person, over the phone, or over the Internet • The open-ended interview is flexible and permits participants to explain their thoughts thoroughly and in their own way • Structured interviews are less flexible Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 46 Methods of Data Collection: Self-Report Measures - Questionnaires • The person under study answers questions about his or her experiences, attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and behaviors • Questionnaires are also called surveys – Sets of questions, typically multiple choice, that scientists compile and use to collect data from large samples of people • Can be administered in person, online, by telephone, e-mail, or postal mail Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 47 Challenges of Self-Report Measures • People may give socially desirable answers • Self-report data may not always reflect people’s true attitudes and behavior Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 48 Methods of Data Collection: Observational Measures • Naturalistic observation – Observe and record behavior in natural, realworld settings • Challenge is to decide on an operational definition of the behavior of interest • Sometimes the presence of an observer causes the person to behave in unnatural ways (participant reactivity) • Structured observations – Observing and recording behaviors displayed in a controlled environment Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 49 Correlational Research • Correlational research permits researchers to examine relations among measured characteristics, behaviors, and events • Correlational research cannot enable researchers to make conclusions about the causes of the relationship between variables, only that a relationship exists among variables – For example: Children who watch more television on school nights score lower on achievement tests Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 50 Experimental Research • Allows scientists to test hypotheses about causal relationships – An experiment is a procedure that uses control to determine causal relationships among variables or factors • Components of an experiment: – Dependent variable » The behavior under study – Independent variable » The factor proposed to change the behavior under study Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 51 Components of an Experiment • Experimental groups – Test groups whose experiences are manipulated by varying the independent variable • Control group – A group that is treated in every way like the experimental group but does not receive the independent variable in order to compare the effect of the manipulation • Random assignment – Each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to the experimental or control group Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 52 Developmental Research Designs: Cross-Sectional Research Design • Comparing groups of people at different ages (cohorts), at one time – Allows scientists to draw conclusions about age differences • Does not permit conclusions about development because participants differ not only in terms of age but cohort Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 53 Developmental Research Designs: Longitudinal Research Design • One group of participants is studied at many points in time – Longitudinal research provides information about age change because it follows people over time – Longitudinal research studies only one cohort – one generation – and therefore is prone to cohort effects • Because only one cohort is assessed, it is not possible to determine if the observed changes are age-related changes or changes that are unique to the cohorts examined Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 54 Developmental Research Designs: Sequential Research Design • Sequential research design combines the best features of cross-sectional and longitudinal research by assessing multiple cohorts over time – Enables researchers to disentangle the effects of cohort and age Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 55 Ethical Issues in Research 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Beneficence and nonmaleficence Responsibility Integrity Justice Respect for autonomy Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 56 Beneficence and Nonmaleficence • To do good and not to do harm – Researchers must protect and help the individuals, families, and communities with which they work • Maximize the benefits • Minimize the potential harms Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 57 Responsibility • Adhere to professional standards of conduct • Clarifying their obligations and roles to others • Avoiding conflicts of interest Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 58 Integrity • Scientists must be accurate, honest, and truthful in their work • Scientists must make every effort to keep their promises to the people and communities with which they work Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 59 Justice • The benefits and risks of participation in research must be spread equitably across individuals and groups • Scientists must take care to ensure that all people have access to and benefit from the contributions of research Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 60 Respect for Autonomy • The subjects’ ability to make and implement decisions – Researchers must provide information about the research study and answer questions in order to help participants to make their own decisions about whether to participate in the study – Researchers must accept their decisions – Respecting people’s autonomy also means protecting those who are not capable of making judgments and asserting themselves Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 61 Responsibilities to Participants • Scientists work to balance the benefits of research against the possible harm that can occur to participants (mental, emotional, and physical risks) – Institutional Review Board (IRB) • The IRB examines the proposed research study in light of professional ethical codes as well as those articulated by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 62 Responsibilities to Participants: Informed Consent • The participants’ informed, rational, and voluntary agreement to participate – Informed: Consent must be made with knowledge of the scope of the research, the potential for harm (if any), and the possible benefits of participating – Rational: Consent must be made by a person capable of making a rational decision • Parents provide parental permission for their minor children to participate – Voluntary: The decision to participate must be made freely and without coercion Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 63 Rights of Research Participants Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 64 Responsibilities to Society • Researchers should be mindful of the social and political implications of their work • Researchers must consider how their findings will be portrayed in the media and attempt to foresee ways in which their results may be misinterpreted Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications. 65