Download Ch. 1

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Understanding Human Development:
Approaches and Theories
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Dr. Kuther's Chalk Talks: Part I
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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What is Lifespan Human Development?
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The ways in which people grow, change, and
stay the same throughout their lives, from
conception to death
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Phases of Life
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Phases of Life
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Prenatal (conception to birth)
Infancy and toddlerhood (Birth to 2 years)
Early childhood (2 to 6 years)
Middle childhood (6 to 11 years)
Adolescence (11 to 18 years)
Early adulthood (18 to 40 years)
Middle adulthood (40 to 65 years)
Late adulthood (65 and beyond)
Death
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Development is Multidimensional
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Development entails changes in many areas of
development:
– Physical development
• Body maturation and growth
– Cognitive development
• Maturation of thought processes
– Socioemotional development
• Changes in personality, emotions, views of
oneself, social skills, and interpersonal
relationships
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Development is Multidirectional
• Development consists of:
– Gains and losses
– Growth and decline
– Example:
• Older adults’ social networks narrow and
have fewer friends; however, their
relationships become more significant and
meaningful
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Development is Plastic
• Development is malleable or changeable
– Examples:
• The brain and body can compensate for illness
and injury
• People can modify their traits and capacities
throughout life
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Development is Influenced
by Multiple Contexts
• Context:
– Where and when a person develops and
includes:
• The physical and social environment
• Neighborhood
• Country
• Culture
• Historical time period
• Values, customs, and ideals
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Contextual Influences
• Cohort – A generation of people born at
the same time
– History-graded influences:
• Wars, epidemics, and economic shifts (i.e.,
The Great Depression)
– Age-graded influences:
• Events tied to chronological age (i.e., age
when someone graduates from high school)
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Development is Multidisciplinary
• The contributions of many disciplines are
needed to understand how people grow,
think, and interact with their world
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Psychologists
Sociologists
Anthropologists
Biologists
Neuroscientists
Medical researchers
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Three Fundamental Questions
about Human Development
1. Do people remain largely the same over
time or do they change dramatically?
2. What role do people play in their own
development?
3. To what extent is development a function
of inborn genetic endowments, as
compared with the environment in which
individuals live?
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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VIDEO CASE
Context and Development: Large Family
Family size is an important context for development. A large
family offers unique supports.
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Continuities and Discontinuities
in Development
• Continuous
– Slow and gradual change
• Example: A middle-aged adult experiencing
gradual loss of muscle
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Discontinuous
– Abrupt change
• Example: Puberty
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Individuals Are Active in Development
• Individuals interact with and influence the
world around them
• Individuals create the experiences that
lead to developmental change
• Example:
– Children who are learning language
frequently ask the question “Why?” Adults
answer their questions, furthering their
knowledge
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Nature and Nurture
Influence Development
• Nature:
– Developmental change is caused by inborn
genetic endowments or heredity,
maturational processes, and evolution
• Nurture:
– Individuals are molded by the physical and
social environment in which they are raised,
including the home, school, workplace,
neighborhood, and society
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Current Focus on
the Nature-Nurture Issue
• Developmental scientists attempt to
determine how nature and nurture work
together to influence how people grow
and change throughout life
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Theory
• A theory is a way of organizing a set of
observations or facts into a comprehensive
explanation of how something works
– Hypotheses:
• Proposed explanations for a given
phenomenon that can be tested by
research
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Psychoanalytic Theories
• Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
– Behavior is driven by unconscious impulses
that are outside of our awareness
• Psychosexual stages
• Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
– The social world, society, and culture shape
development
• Eight stages of psychosocial development
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Contributions and Criticisms
of Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
• Contributions:
– Focus on the unconscious
– Early experiences in the family are important
– Emotions are important to development
• Criticisms:
– Freud did not study children
– Too much emphasis on infant sexuality
– The unconscious cannot be directly tested
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Contributions and Criticisms
of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
• Contributions:
– Lifespan perspective
– Positive view of development
– Includes the role of society and culture
• Criticisms:
– Difficult to test
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Behaviorism
• The study of behavior that can be
observed
• All behavior is influenced by the physical
and social environment
• Also known as learning theory and
includes:
– Classical conditioning
– Operant conditioning
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Classical Conditioning
• Learning in which the person or animal
comes to associate environmental stimuli
with physiological responses
• Discovered by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
• Physiological and emotional responses
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning has been
observed in newborns, who
naturally make sucking
movements (unconditioned
response) in response to sugar
water (unconditioned stimulus).
When stroking the forehead
(neutral stimulus) is paired with
sugar water, infants come to
make sucking movements
(conditioned response) in
response to forehead strokes
(conditioned stimulus).
SOURCE: Lampl et al. (1992).
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Operant Conditioning
• The consequences of our behavior
influence our future behavior
• Discovered by B. F. Skinner (1905-1990)
• Voluntary, nonphysiological responses
– Behavior that is rewarded will be more likely
to recur (reinforcement)
– Behavior that is punished will be less likely to
recur (punishment)
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Social Learning Theory
• Albert Bandura (1925-)
• People actively process information by
thinking and feeling emotion, and their
thoughts and feelings influence their
behavior
– We do not need to experience punishment
or reinforcement in order to change our
behavior
– We can learn by thinking about the potential
consequences of our actions
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Contributions of Social Learning Theory
• Observational learning
– People learn by watching others
• Reciprocal determinism
– Individuals and the environment interact and
influence each other
• In contrast with behaviorist theorists,
Bandura viewed individuals as active in
their development rather than passively
molded by their physical and social
surroundings
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Illustration of Social Learning Theory
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Development is a result of interaction between
the individual’s characteristics, his or her behavior,
and the physical and social environment
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Cognitive Theories:
Cognitive-Developmental Theory
• Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
• In order to understand children, we must
understand how they think; thinking
influences all of behavior
• Main tenet:
– Children and adults are active explorers of
their world, learning by interacting with the
world around them, and organizing what
they learn into cognitive schemas
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Piaget’s Stages
of Cognitive Development
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Contributions and Criticisms of Piaget’s
Cognitive-Developmental Theory
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Contributions:
– First to consider how infants and children think
– Views people as active contributors to their development
– Stages hold implications for education
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Criticisms:
– Focused too heavily on cognition and ignored emotional
and social factors in development
– Neglected the influence of contextual factors
– Some say that cognitive development is not a
discontinuous, stage-like process
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Cognitive Theories:
Information Processing Theory
• A perspective that views thinking as
information processing and posits that the
mind works in ways similar to a computer
– Information enters, is manipulated, stored,
recalled, and used to solve problems
– We are born with the ability to process
information
– Maturation of the brain and nervous system
contributes to changes in our information
processing abilities
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Contributions and Criticisms of
Information Processing Theory
Contributions:
– Offers a complex and detailed view of how we think
– Permits scientists to make specific predictions about
behavior and performance that can be tested in research
studies
•
Criticisms:
– A computer model cannot capture the complexity of the
human mind and people’s unique cognitive abilities
– Findings from laboratory research may not extend to the
everyday contexts of people’s lives
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Sociocultural Systems Theory
• Emphasizes the role of sociocultural
context in development
• People of all ages are immersed in their
social contexts; they are inseparable from
the cultural beliefs and societal,
neighborhood, and familial contexts in
which they live
• Two viewpoints:
– Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
– Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
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Emphasized the importance of culture in
development
Examined how culture is transmitted from one
generation to the next through social
interaction
– More skilled individuals guide children to acquire
knowledge; cognitive development is a social
process that relies on interaction with adults,
more mature peers, and other members of
society
– Children are active in their development by
engaging with the world around them
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Contributions and Criticisms of
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
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Contributions:
– Emphasizes the role of the cultural context in
influencing people’s development throughout life
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Criticisms:
– Overemphasizes the role of context
– Minimizes the role of individuals in their own
development
– Neglects the influence of genetic and biological factors
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological
Systems Theory
• Development is a result of the ongoing
interactions among biological, cognitive,
and psychological changes within the
person and his or her changing context
– Individuals are all embedded in, or
surrounded by, a series of contexts:
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Home
School
Neighborhood
Culture
Society
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Contributions and Criticisms of
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory
• Contributions:
– The bioecological model is complex – only when we
consider the multiple interacting influences within the
individual and context will we gain insight into the
processes and outcomes of developmental change
• Criticisms:
– The bioecological model is so complex that we can
never measure and account for all of the potential
influences on development at once
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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VIDEO CASE
Sociohistorical Influences on Development: Desegregation
Development is influenced by sociohistorical context. In this clip, the Washington
family discusses their experiences with discrimination and attending newly
desegregated schools in the 1950s.
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Ethological Theory
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A precursor to evolutionary developmental theory
The scientific study of the evolutionary basis of
behavior and its survival value
Konrad Lorenz
– Patterns of animal behavior appeared to be inborn,
emerged early in life, and ensured their survival
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John Bowlby
– Humans also display biologically preprogrammed
behaviors that have survival value and promote
development
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Evolutionary Developmental Theory
• A theory that applies principles of
evolution and scientific knowledge about
the interactive influence of genetic and
environmental mechanisms to understand
the changes people undergo throughout
their lifetime
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Research in Human Development:
The Scientific Method
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The process of posing and answering
questions by making careful and systematic
observations and gathering information
1. Identify the research question or problem to be
studied and formulate the hypothesis
2. Gather information to address the research
question
3. Analyze the information gathered and
determine whether the hypothesis is supported
4. Interpret the summarized information and share
the findings
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Methods of Data Collection:
Self-Report Measures - Interviews
• The person under study answers questions
about his or her experiences, attitudes,
opinions, beliefs, and behaviors
– Interviews can take place in person, over the
phone, or over the Internet
• The open-ended interview is flexible and
permits participants to explain their
thoughts thoroughly and in their own way
• Structured interviews are less flexible
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Methods of Data Collection:
Self-Report Measures - Questionnaires
• The person under study answers questions
about his or her experiences, attitudes,
opinions, beliefs, and behaviors
• Questionnaires are also called surveys
– Sets of questions, typically multiple choice,
that scientists compile and use to collect
data from large samples of people
• Can be administered in person, online, by
telephone, e-mail, or postal mail
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Challenges of Self-Report Measures
• People may give socially desirable answers
• Self-report data may not always reflect
people’s true attitudes and behavior
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Methods of Data Collection:
Observational Measures
• Naturalistic observation
– Observe and record behavior in natural, realworld settings
• Challenge is to decide on an operational
definition of the behavior of interest
• Sometimes the presence of an observer
causes the person to behave in unnatural
ways (participant reactivity)
• Structured observations
– Observing and recording behaviors displayed
in a controlled environment
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Correlational Research
• Correlational research permits researchers
to examine relations among measured
characteristics, behaviors, and events
• Correlational research cannot enable
researchers to make conclusions about the
causes of the relationship between
variables, only that a relationship exists
among variables
– For example: Children who watch more
television on school nights score lower on
achievement tests
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Experimental Research
• Allows scientists to test hypotheses about
causal relationships
– An experiment is a procedure that uses
control to determine causal relationships
among variables or factors
• Components of an experiment:
– Dependent variable
» The behavior under study
– Independent variable
» The factor proposed to change the
behavior under study
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Components of an Experiment
• Experimental groups
– Test groups whose experiences are manipulated
by varying the independent variable
• Control group
– A group that is treated in every way like the
experimental group but does not receive the
independent variable in order to compare the
effect of the manipulation
• Random assignment
– Each participant has an equal chance of being
assigned to the experimental or control group
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Developmental Research Designs:
Cross-Sectional Research Design
• Comparing groups of people at different
ages (cohorts), at one time
– Allows scientists to draw conclusions about
age differences
• Does not permit conclusions about
development because participants differ not
only in terms of age but cohort
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Developmental Research Designs:
Longitudinal Research Design
•
One group of participants is studied at many
points in time
– Longitudinal research provides information
about age change because it follows people over
time
– Longitudinal research studies only one cohort –
one generation – and therefore is prone to
cohort effects
• Because only one cohort is assessed, it is not
possible to determine if the observed changes
are age-related changes or changes that are
unique to the cohorts examined
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Developmental Research Designs:
Sequential Research Design
• Sequential research design combines the
best features of cross-sectional and
longitudinal research by assessing multiple
cohorts over time
– Enables researchers to disentangle the effects of
cohort and age
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Ethical Issues in Research
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Beneficence and nonmaleficence
Responsibility
Integrity
Justice
Respect for autonomy
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
• To do good and not to do harm
– Researchers must protect and help the
individuals, families, and communities with
which they work
• Maximize the benefits
• Minimize the potential harms
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Responsibility
• Adhere to professional standards of
conduct
• Clarifying their obligations and roles to
others
• Avoiding conflicts of interest
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Integrity
• Scientists must be accurate, honest, and
truthful in their work
• Scientists must make every effort to keep
their promises to the people and
communities with which they work
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Justice
• The benefits and risks of participation in
research must be spread equitably across
individuals and groups
• Scientists must take care to ensure that all
people have access to and benefit from the
contributions of research
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Respect for Autonomy
• The subjects’ ability to make and
implement decisions
– Researchers must provide information about
the research study and answer questions in
order to help participants to make their own
decisions about whether to participate in the
study
– Researchers must accept their decisions
– Respecting people’s autonomy also means
protecting those who are not capable of
making judgments and asserting themselves
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Responsibilities to Participants
• Scientists work to balance the benefits of
research against the possible harm that
can occur to participants (mental,
emotional, and physical risks)
– Institutional Review Board (IRB)
• The IRB examines the proposed research study
in light of professional ethical codes as well as
those articulated by the U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Responsibilities to Participants:
Informed Consent
•
The participants’ informed, rational, and
voluntary agreement to participate
– Informed: Consent must be made with
knowledge of the scope of the research, the
potential for harm (if any), and the possible
benefits of participating
– Rational: Consent must be made by a person
capable of making a rational decision
• Parents provide parental permission for their
minor children to participate
– Voluntary: The decision to participate must be
made freely and without coercion
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Rights of Research Participants
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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Responsibilities to Society
• Researchers should be mindful of the
social and political implications of their
work
• Researchers must consider how their
findings will be portrayed in the media and
attempt to foresee ways in which their
results may be misinterpreted
Kuther, Lifespan Development: Lives in Context. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
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