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Scientific Bulletin of the Electrical Engineering Faculty – Year 10 No. 1 (12) ISSN 1843-6188 IDENFICATION AND EXTRACTION OF NUCLEAR ENERGY E. POTOLEA, M. TRUTIA Polytechnic University Bucharest E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: We notice experimentally that there are nuclear exothermal reactions which can be considered sources of nuclear energy. We admit the hypothesis that the neutron is a nuclear particle consisting in a proton and a sliding electron on the surface of the proton. We identify the nuclear energy as kinetic energy of the sliding electrons on the surfaces of the protons and we propose a method to extract the nuclear energy as heat. 2. EPISTEMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES The epistemology studies the general methods of scientific knowledge. The general methods are called fundamental or general principles (of cognoscibility and determinism) and the methods of inquiry of matter are called epistemological principles of physics. 10. The principle of cognoscibility states that nature is cognoscible through senses and reason. The information acquired by the human senses is redundant, so that the human reason can develop sure notions about bodies and forces in nature. 20. Two conditions of existence of matter. The information on matter, acquired through the human senses and processed by reason, allow the formation of the notions of space and time as two conditions of existence of matter. The following properties are confirmed by all traditional physical experiments, pragmatically interpreted: 1) the absolute space is infinite, tri-dimensional, continuous, homogenous and isotropic and 2) the absolute time is unlimited, onedimensional, continuous, homogenous and irreversible. 30. Two forms of existence of matter. There are two forms of existence of matter: body of substance and field of forces. In the following we often replace the full name body of substance with the simple name body, but we keep the full name field of forces because the simple name field can have other meanings. The two forms of matter, body and field of forces, are recognizable after two general properties: the bodies cannot occupy the same space in the same time, but the fields of forces can overlap in the same space and time. The space without bodies is called vacuum or free (empty) space. In vacuum two or more fields of forces can overlap such as the fields of forces: gravitational, electric, magnetic and electromagnetic. 40. Two hypotheses regarding the bodies. We admit two working hypotheses: a) the bodies have geometric dimensions no matter how small or how large relatively to the distances between them and b) the bodies have finite and determined geometric dimensions. The hypotheses suggest the division of physical theory in two components: the macroscopic and the microscopic physics (theory). Keywords: nuclear energy, identification and extraction. 1. INTRODUCTION We distinguish between two physical theories: a) traditional, which refers to the physical knowledge obtained and systematized since the prehistory of human civilization until the year 2000 and b) pragmatic, which refers to the physical knowledge, systematized and supplemented by us after the year 2000. The traditional theory of physics or the traditional physics can be systematized as follows: 1) the empirical physics, since prehistory until the statement of the first general laws, 2) the classical physics, between the years 1600 and 1900 when principles and laws were stated in mechanics, electrodynamics and thermodynamics and 3) the modern physics [1] which overlapped with the XX century including the relativistic [4] and quantum [5] theories. The pragmatic theory of physics or the pragmatic physics is the continuation of the classical physics from the end of the XIX century before the development of the relativistic and quantum theories. The base knowledge is synthesized in 10 general laws to which about 20 material laws from the macroscopic theory are added. There are many differences between these two theories but the base experiments are the same. Our contribution to the pragmatic physics is mainly theoretical in nature because the theory is the main deficiency of the traditional physics. In the references [6], [7] we have developed the pragmatic theory of the macroscopic physics competing with the traditional physics containing utopian theories: relativistic and quantum ones. In this work we develop the pragmatic theory of the nuclear energy (identification and extraction) ignoring the utopian theories previously dismissed. We begin with a short synthesis of the pragmatic theory of the macroscopic physics (paragraphs 2 and 3) and continue with the application of the pragmatic theory to the microscopic physics (paragraphs 4 and 5). 32 ISSN 1843-6188 Scientific Bulletin of the Electrical Engineering Faculty – Year 10 No. 1 (12) The macroscopic physics admits the existence of bodies with no matter how small dimensions (point-like) or no matter how large dimensions (the continuous media). The microscopic physics admits the existence of bodies with finite and determined geometric dimensions (the elementary particles in microscopic theory). 50. Two categories of physical models. The macroscopic physics operates with two categories of physical models: idealized and concrete. The idealized physical models are defined for three domains of macroscopic physics: material points in mechanics, point-like electric charges and filiform conductors in electrodynamics and the perfect gas in thermodynamics. The idealized physical models (in theory) are replaced (in practice) with concrete physical models (bodies of probe) which verify the general laws with approximations acceptable in practice. The name material point taken from classical mechanics refers to a particle of substance, not to a particle of matter which is a more general notion. Matter can be substance (the gravitational mass in mechanics) and radiation (the photon’s mass in electrodynamics). 60. The physical quantities. The physical quantities are natural properties, susceptible of two determinations: qualitative (physical dimensions) and quantitative (numerical values). The macroscopic theory selects two types of physical quantities: primary and primitive. Primary physical quantities are, for instance: space, time and force. We say that a physical quantity is determined qualitatively and quantitatively if A = ≈ Av Au where Av and Au A. The sign = ≈ is read equal equivalent with two specifications: 1) equality for the quantitative determination Av where is the set of real numbers and 2) equivalence for the qualitative determination Au A where A is the class of equivalence or the quality of a physical quantity. The quantitative determination Av is called numerical value or measure of the physical quantity A and the qualitative determination Au can be an unit of measurement (abstract notion) or an etalon of measurement (a concrete object). 70. The physical laws. The physical laws are physicalmathematical relations which express the most general knowledge about physical quantities. The macroscopic theory selects 2 types of physical laws: general and material. The general laws are stated on idealized physical models and the laws of material are stated on concrete physical models. The general laws of macroscopic theory are the general laws of physics because the microscopic doesn’t state general laws. The number of general laws is determined and the number of material laws is not determined and can grow along with the development of knowledge about bodies. The statement of a physical law, general or of material, requires the passing through the three essential steps of the process of knowledge: a) the accumulation of experimental facts (the sensorial step), b) the formulation of the scientific hypothesis (the rational step) and c) the verification in practice (the criterion of truth).The experimental verification of law (general or of material) requires the utilization of a concrete physical model and the acceptation of some approximations over the experimental verifications (the measurements). 80. The physical principles express specific properties of bodies and fields or of some functions of primitive physical quantities such as the momentum, the energy and others. The pragmatic physics selects two categories of physical principles: specific and general. The statement of a specific principle requires two main steps which include the three essential steps of the process of knowledge at a superior level of knowledge. In the first step the general laws are used and theorems for idealized physical models are demonstrated. In the second step the theorems are verified experimentally on concrete physical models which imply laws of material, and principles of conservations of some derived physical quantities (defined as functions of primitive physical quantities) are stated. The statement of a general principle requires the study of the physical quantities, primitive and derived, in order to extract some general properties. This way the first two general physical principles are stated which refer to bodies and forces: the impenetrability of bodies and the overlapping of forces. After the statement of the general and material laws other general principles can be discovered, for instance, the action and the reaction of forces (mechanical, electro dynamical, thermodynamic), the inertia of the speeds (rectilinear and circular) in mechanics and the inertia of fluxes (electric and magnetic) in electrodynamics. The number of principles, specific and general, is not determined and it can grow along with the discovery of some common properties (of conservation or of inertia) of the primitive or derived physical quantities. 90. The Principle of Determinism. Be NP the number of primitive physical quantities and NL the number of general physical laws. The difference NP – NL > 0 is the number of fundamental physical quantities to which we associate NF independent etalons of measurement: NF = NP – NL The general laws of physics and the primitive physical quantities satisfy the principle of determinism if the NF independent etalons of the fundamental physical quantities can be identified without the general laws of physics. In these conditions the other NP – NF = NL primitive physical quantities can be identified with the NL general laws. 100. Approximations and successive iterations. The physical theory is elaborated through approximations and successive iterations upon knowledge. The macroscopic physics is the first approximation of the pragmatic physics and the microscopic physics is the second approximation of the pragmatic theory. The microscopic theory is elaborated as a continuation of the macroscopic theory. The general laws and the primitive quantities from the macroscopic theory are 33 Scientific Bulletin of the Electrical Engineering Faculty – Year 10 No. 1 (12) ISSN 1843-6188 fundament the rejection of Einstein’s theory in which E = mc2 and E = m. extrapolated in the microscopic theory with some adaptations. The microscopic theory continues with the identification of the microscopic entities (molecules, atoms, nuclei, elementary particles) and ends with the analytical demonstration of the material laws from macroscopic theory. 4. INSIGHT IN MICROSCOPICAL PHYSICS We take over the microscopic physical knowledge from the end of the 19th century and we add elements of pragmatic physics ignoring the relativistic and quantum theories developed in the 20th century. This direct approach of microscopic physics leads to pragmatic results which verify some traditional experiments and eliminate some “physical anomalies” caused by utopian theories of traditional physics. We describe elementary particles and nuclear particles from the periodic table of elements (Mendeleyev) but we also add pragmatic hypotheses. In a first step (iteration) of the microscopic physics we ignore other elementary or nuclear particles discovered in the cosmic radiations by traditional physics. 3. GENERAL LAWS OF PHYSICS The system of general laws of physics expresses 10 physical-mathematical relations between 15 primitive quantities according to the chart below as it follows: Two general laws for mechanics: the law of dynamics (1) and the law of gravity (2). Seven general laws for electrodynamics: two external laws (the law of electric force (3) and the law of magnetic force (4)), two internal laws (the law of electric induction (5) and the law of magnetic induction (6)), two laws of evolution (the law of electromagnetic induction (7) and the law of magnetic circuit and of magneto electric induction (8)) and the law of electric charge (9). One general law for thermodynamics: the law of the perfect gas (10). The system of fundamental physical quantities in number of NF= 15 – 10 = 5 contains: three universal fundamental quantities (distance r, time t, force F), and two specific fundamental quantities: (the current i and the thermodynamic temperature T). The independent etalons of the fundamental quantities are called: 1) meter (m), 2) second (s), 3) newton (N), 4) ampere (A), 5) kelvin (K). Three from the primitive quantities are the universal (r, t, F). The others are specific primitive quantities assigned to three domains of macroscopic physics: 2 in mechanics, 8 in electrodynamics, and 2 in thermodynamics. 4.1. Elementary particles We admit the existence of only two classes of indestructible elementary particles: the proton p and the electron e. The elementary particles have spherical shape and the following characteristics are universal physical constants: the radiuses rp = 1.500 10-15 m and re = 1.225 10-16 m, the masses mp= 1.673 10-27 kg and me = 9.901 10-31 kg, the electric charges qp = 1.602 10-19 C and qe = - 1.6 10-19 C, the spin magnetic moments μsp= 1.411 10-26 J/T and μse= -928.5 10-26J/T. The traditional references don’t provide information concerning the measured radius of the electron but prove that the classical radius of the electron is re classicall = 2.8 10-15 m. We notice that the classical radius re classical surpasses the radius of the proton so we must reject the traditional demonstration. We calculate the radius of the electron from the relation (re/rp)3 = me/mp, which implies a pragmatic hypothesis: the mass densities of the elementary particles are equal. A controversial matter in traditional literature is the spin movement of the electron which causes a spin speed [6] greater than speed of light in vacuum. The physicists consider this result a physical anomaly which the traditional theory will be eliminated at some future moment. The traditional references don’t provide information concerning the internal structure of the elementary particles. We admit two hypotheses regarding the mass and electric charge densities of the elementary particles: 1) the masses mp, me are uniformly distributed in the spherical volumes of the particles and 2) the electric charges qp, qe are uniformly distributed on the spherical surfaces of the particles. Lacking these assumptions, the traditional theory introduces the utopia of quanta: the spin movements of the particles are quantified [6] and the quantum numbers are half-integer numbers. Figure 1: Chart of general laws The pragmatic theory of general laws (10 general laws) and of primitive quantities (15 primitive quantities) justifies the Pragmatic System (SP) of units of measurement with 5 independent etalons m, s, N, A, K. The International System (SI) of units of measurement of traditional physics contains 7 fundamental etalons which are not independent. In spite of its lacks, commented in [6], the system SI has a quality also found in SP of rejecting the relations ε0 = μ0 = c = 1 in the system of units Gauss. As a consequence SI and SP 4.2 Nuclear particles We describe two types of nuclear particles: 1) the pragmatic neutron y (fig 2, b) which differs from the traditional neutron n and 2) the pragmatic particle α (Fig. 2, 34 Scientific Bulletin of the Electrical Engineering Faculty – Year 10 No. 1 (12) ISSN 1843-6188 6.673 10-12 γu; R2 = 0.229 m; R4 = 0.480 10-2 m; R6 = 1.017 10-4 m. We calculate only three forces of interaction among elementary particles: Fee electron- electron, Fpp protonproton, Fep electron-proton. We consider the attractive forces (gravitational and Coulomb) positive and the repulsive forces (Coulomb) negative. We give estimative results on the hypothesis that distances between the pairs of particles are minimal (the spheres of the pairs of particles ee, p-p, e-p are tangent): Fee = 4.718 1026 N and Fpp = 3.149 1026 N and Fpp 3.149 10 27 N and Fep 2.337 1014 N . c) which differs from the traditional particle with the same name. We underline the following: 1) the neutron (y or n) is a constituent of atomic nuclei and 2) the particle α (pragmatic or traditional) is the nucleus of the Helium atom. The pragmatic neutron y = p + e is made of a proton p and an electron e which slides on the surface of the proton, according to figure 2 b. It can be considered that the neutron comes from a Hydrogen atom H (Fig. 2, a) in which the planetary electron has been “thrown” on the surface of the nucleus p. Due to the spin movements the electric charges neutralize each (qn = qp + qe = 0) other but don’t annihilate each other and the masses sum each other (mn = mp + me) but don’t co-mass. The spin magnetic moment of the neutron sn is measured and then the orbital magnetic moment of the sliding electron is calculated oe = sn - sp and sn = -0.965 10-26 A·m2 and oe = -2.374 10-26 A m2. (a) The impressive values of the forces of gravitational attraction between the nuclear particles explain the remarkable stability of atomic nuclei. 5. NUCLEAR ENERGY The neutron y bears free energy: kinetic energy of the sliding electron which is to be extracted as heat. The free energy of the neutron is the nuclear energy. We intend to calculate the nuclear energy and to establish a method to extract the nuclear energy from the atomic nucleus. We express the speed of the sliding electron voe on the circular orbit of radius rpe = rp + re as a function of orbital magnetic moment oe, and then we express kinetic energy Eoe of the sliding electron: 1 2oe 2 (13) Eoe me voe voe 2 qe rpe (b) With the relations (13) we calculate voe = 1.978 107 m/s and Eoe = 1.782 10-16 J. The sliding electron becomes satellite of the proton if the variables voe and Eoe surpass the maximal values: voe max = 2.248 1017 m/s and Eoe max = 2.302 104 J. Our calculated estimative results are compatible with some incomplete experimental results, which are available to us [7]: Eo Eo fluorine = 3.26 MeV, where lithium = 8.6 MeV and 1 MeV = 1.6 10-13 J. We try to extract the nuclear energy with the assistance from the electrolysis of heavy water. D2O, or D is deuterium, it first isotope of H. We notice experimentally that the electrolysis is accompanied by two microscopic phenomena: electrolytic dissociation and nuclear transmutation. The electrolytic dissociation of the molecule D2O consists in the separation of two electrized particles: the ion D+ and the ion DO-. The electrolytic dissociation (Svante Arhenius) is a state of stationary equilibrium of the ions D (positive) and DO (negative) under the action of the gravitational and Coulomb forces. The positive ion D is also called deuteron d = p + y and is the nucleus of the atom of deuterium D. The nuclear transmutation begins after electrical tension (voltage) is applied between the electrodes of the electrolytic bath. Under the action of the electric field between electrodes determines the ordered movement (displacement) of the positive ions D move towards cathode. Under the action of the gravitational forces some deuterium ions tend to approach at distances around 10-10 m. In these conditions, any pair of deuterons (c) Figure 2: a) Hydrogen atom, b) pragmatic neutron, c) pragmatic particle α. The pragmatic particle α = 4p + 2e is made of four protons and two electrons. The protons are disposed in the vertices of square (Fig. 2, c) and the electrons are situated in the free space between the protons. The mass of the particle is m α = 4mp + 2me and the electric charge is qα = 4qp +2qe = 2qp > 0. 4.3. Nuclear forces There are two types of nuclear forces acting upon the elementary particles: electrostatic and gravitational. The electrostatic forces, attractive or repulsive between particles are expressed by Coulomb’s theorem (11) and the attractive gravitational forces are expressed by the law of universal gravity (12) which is an extension of law of gravity (Newton): 1 q1 q2 (11) F 40 d122 F m1 m2 R22 R44 R66 1 d122 d122 d124 d126 (12) The physical constants from the relations (4) are identified from the study of interdisciplinary phenomena [6], macroscopic and microscopic. Here are the results in the system of units SI: 0 = 8.846 10-12 u; γ = 35 Scientific Bulletin of the Electrical Engineering Faculty – Year 10 No. 1 (12) d = p + y transmute (Fig. 3) into a particle α = 4p + 2e, along with the heating of the electrolyte. ISSN 1843-6188 physical constants from the extended law of gravity. A more accurate solution of the problem is the simultaneous estimation of states and parameters of a physical system in the microscopic theory. 6.2. Comments to paragraph 5. The electrolysis of the heavy water has been used since 1995 in scientific investigation [1]. The researches have been stopped for two main reasons: 1) the opposition of the physicists which demonstrated that the fusion of the deuterons is not possible because of the electric potential barrier and 2) the lack of financial support. The first mentioned reason is eliminated by our pragmatic hypotheses concerning gravitational forces between the elementary particles. The elimination of the second reason shouldn’t be an issue as the financing of the pragmatic research is derisory compared to the billions of dollars spent for the experiment Geneva [8]. Figure 3. Two deuterons (D) fuse and form the α particle The kinetic energy of the sliding electrons is transferred (through elastic collisions) to the electrolyte until the reaching of thermal equilibrium and the stabilization of the electrons in the free spaces from the centers of the particles α. The nuclear transmutation from 2d = 2p + 2y to α = 4p + 2e is an exothermal nuclear reaction because the first component 2p + 2y contains two sliding electrons which release kinetic energy and become two stationary electrons in the free space between four protons.The transition from the physical system D + D to the system α is natural and is accomplished with minimal loss of radiant energy (neutrino). We say that the thermal energy obtained through nuclear transmutation is a clean energy. The installation of electrolysis of heavy water, with a cooling circuit of the electrolyte is a generator of clean and cheap thermal energy. 6.3. Experimental confirmation Nuclear power was during the 20th century a great hope of mankind to meet growing demand for energy. Nuclear Engineering of the years 1950 - 2000 was based solely on experimental results. That's how they built and improved reactors to extract heat by bombarding uranium with neutrons of the nuclei. Experiments have shown that slow Neutron reactors are more effective than fast neutron ones. The experimental results confirm the hypothesis of the pragmatic neutron which releases the kinetic energy of the electron and fissions nucleus of uranium. Traditional theory can not explain the slow neutron reaction (elementary particle without internal energy) which causes the uranium nucleus fission, accompanied by the release of a quantity of heat. 6. COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS We have developed the theory of nuclear energy as an iteration of microscopic physics, starting from the basic knowledge of macroscopic physics (paragraphs 2 and 3). We have run through the three essential steps of the process of scientific knowledge as follows: 1) the supplementation of macroscopic physical knowledge with observations regarding interdisciplinary macrocosm and microcosm phenomena, 2) the emission of pragmatic hypotheses for the theory of nuclear energy and 3) experimental checking of the emitted hypotheses. The following conclusions refer to the paragraphs 4) and 5) which correspond to the last steps of the process of knowledge: the rational step and the criterion of truth. 6.4. Conclusions Our paper "Identification and extraction of nuclear power" can be called pragmatic theory of nuclear energy. We note that the nuclear technique fusion uses two natural phenomena, electrolytic dissociation and gravitational forces, unlike nuclear fission technique which is aggressive (bombarding nuclei) and accompanied by an intense neutrino radiation. We say that the transition from physical system d + d in the physical system α is quiet and the released energy is clean. Having provided a pragmatic theory of phenomena in the process of electrolysis of heavy water, possible improvements of the technique for extracting energy from nuclear fusion are possible. We do not rule out the prospect of a researcher who is setting up a garage and start to produce cheap and clean energy generators. 6.1. Comments to paragraph 4. We have proposed a system of elementary particles p, e and nuclear particles y, α. The main problem of this paragraph is the statement of the pragmatic hypotheses for nuclear forces which remain unknown in traditional theory. Our proposal is the extension of the law of gravity and the identification of the physical constants R2, R4, R6 from the study of some interdisciplinary macrocosm and microcosm phenomena, such as: dark matter, radiation belts Van Allen, terrestrial magnetism, atom Bohr. We identified independently the characteristics of the elementary particles and of the REFERENCES Journals: [1] Potolea E, Sanduleac, M. Nuclear forces and nuclear energy. University Polytechnic of Bucharest, Scientific Bulletin, Series C: Electrical Engineering, Volume 70, 2008, Number 3. [2] Potolea E. The Failure of Experiment Geneva 2008 36 ISSN 1843-6188 Scientific Bulletin of the Electrical Engineering Faculty – Year 10 No. 1 (12) and Consequences in Nuclear Energetic. National Symposium „Optimizing of Energetic Services”, edition VI, Buzău, 28-30 October 2009. Books: [3] Radulet R. and all. Romanian Technical Lexicon. Technical Publisher, Bucharest 1957-1968. [4] Einstein A. The Theory of relativity. Technical Publisher, Bucharest 1957. [5] Feynman R. Modern Physics. Technical Publisher, Bucharest, 1969-1970. [6] Potolea E. The Laws and Principles of Physics. Publisher Adevărul S.A. Bucharest, 2001. [7] Potolea E. Physics and Engineering. Publisher I.R.E. Bucharest 2008. 37