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Scientific Bulletin of the Electrical Engineering Faculty – Year 10 No. 1 (12)
ISSN 1843-6188
IDENFICATION AND EXTRACTION OF NUCLEAR ENERGY
E. POTOLEA, M. TRUTIA
Polytechnic University Bucharest
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: We notice experimentally that there are nuclear
exothermal reactions which can be considered sources of
nuclear energy. We admit the hypothesis that the neutron is a
nuclear particle consisting in a proton and a sliding electron
on the surface of the proton. We identify the nuclear energy
as kinetic energy of the sliding electrons on the surfaces of
the protons and we propose a method to extract the nuclear
energy as heat.
2. EPISTEMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
The epistemology studies the general methods of
scientific knowledge. The general methods are called
fundamental or general principles (of cognoscibility and
determinism) and the methods of inquiry of matter are
called epistemological principles of physics.
10. The principle of cognoscibility states that nature is
cognoscible through senses and reason. The
information acquired by the human senses is
redundant, so that the human reason can develop
sure notions about bodies and forces in nature.
20. Two conditions of existence of matter. The
information on matter, acquired through the human
senses and processed by reason, allow the formation
of the notions of space and time as two conditions of
existence of matter. The following properties are
confirmed by all traditional physical experiments,
pragmatically interpreted: 1) the absolute space is
infinite, tri-dimensional, continuous, homogenous and
isotropic and 2) the absolute time is unlimited, onedimensional,
continuous,
homogenous
and
irreversible.
30. Two forms of existence of matter. There are two
forms of existence of matter: body of substance and
field of forces. In the following we often replace the
full name body of substance with the simple name
body, but we keep the full name field of forces
because the simple name field can have other
meanings.
The two forms of matter, body and field of forces, are
recognizable after two general properties: the bodies
cannot occupy the same space in the same time, but
the fields of forces can overlap in the same space
and time.
The space without bodies is called vacuum or free
(empty) space. In vacuum two or more fields of
forces can overlap such as the fields of forces:
gravitational, electric, magnetic and electromagnetic.
40. Two hypotheses regarding the bodies. We admit two
working hypotheses: a) the bodies have geometric
dimensions no matter how small or how large relatively
to the distances between them and b) the bodies have
finite and determined geometric dimensions. The
hypotheses suggest the division of physical theory in
two components: the macroscopic and the microscopic
physics (theory).
Keywords: nuclear energy, identification and extraction.
1. INTRODUCTION
We distinguish between two physical theories: a)
traditional, which refers to the physical knowledge
obtained and systematized since the prehistory of human
civilization until the year 2000 and b) pragmatic, which
refers to the physical knowledge, systematized and
supplemented by us after the year 2000.
The traditional theory of physics or the traditional
physics can be systematized as follows: 1) the empirical
physics, since prehistory until the statement of the first
general laws, 2) the classical physics, between the years
1600 and 1900 when principles and laws were stated in
mechanics, electrodynamics and thermodynamics and 3)
the modern physics [1] which overlapped with the XX
century including the relativistic [4] and quantum [5]
theories.
The pragmatic theory of physics or the pragmatic
physics is the continuation of the classical physics from
the end of the XIX century before the development of the
relativistic and quantum theories. The base knowledge is
synthesized in 10 general laws to which about 20 material
laws from the macroscopic theory are added.
There are many differences between these two
theories but the base experiments are the same. Our
contribution to the pragmatic physics is mainly
theoretical in nature because the theory is the main
deficiency of the traditional physics.
In the references [6], [7] we have developed the
pragmatic theory of the macroscopic physics competing
with the traditional physics containing utopian theories:
relativistic and quantum ones. In this work we develop
the pragmatic theory of the nuclear energy
(identification and extraction) ignoring the utopian
theories previously dismissed. We begin with a short
synthesis of the pragmatic theory of the macroscopic
physics (paragraphs 2 and 3) and continue with the
application of the pragmatic theory to the microscopic
physics (paragraphs 4 and 5).
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Scientific Bulletin of the Electrical Engineering Faculty – Year 10 No. 1 (12)
The macroscopic physics admits the existence of
bodies with no matter how small dimensions (point-like)
or no matter how large dimensions (the continuous
media). The microscopic physics admits the existence of
bodies with finite and determined geometric dimensions
(the elementary particles in microscopic theory).
50. Two categories of physical models. The
macroscopic physics operates with two categories of
physical models: idealized and concrete. The
idealized physical models are defined for three
domains of macroscopic physics: material points in
mechanics, point-like electric charges and filiform
conductors in electrodynamics and the perfect gas in
thermodynamics.
The idealized physical models (in theory) are
replaced (in practice) with concrete physical models
(bodies of probe) which verify the general laws with
approximations acceptable in practice.
The name material point taken from classical
mechanics refers to a particle of substance, not to a
particle of matter which is a more general notion.
Matter can be substance (the gravitational mass in
mechanics) and radiation (the photon’s mass in
electrodynamics).
60. The physical quantities. The physical quantities are
natural properties, susceptible of two determinations:
qualitative (physical dimensions) and quantitative
(numerical values). The macroscopic theory selects two
types of physical quantities: primary and primitive.
Primary physical quantities are, for instance: space,
time and force.
We say that a physical quantity is determined
qualitatively and quantitatively if A = ≈ Av Au where
Av   and Au  A. The sign = ≈ is read equal
equivalent with two specifications: 1) equality for the
quantitative determination Av   where  is the
set of real numbers and 2) equivalence for the
qualitative determination Au  A where A is the
class of equivalence or the quality of a physical
quantity. The quantitative determination Av is called
numerical value or measure of the physical quantity
A and the qualitative determination Au can be an unit
of measurement (abstract notion) or an etalon of
measurement (a concrete object).
70. The physical laws. The physical laws are physicalmathematical relations which express the most
general knowledge about physical quantities. The
macroscopic theory selects 2 types of physical laws:
general and material. The general laws are stated on
idealized physical models and the laws of material
are stated on concrete physical models. The general
laws of macroscopic theory are the general laws of
physics because the microscopic doesn’t state
general laws. The number of general laws is
determined and the number of material laws is not
determined and can grow along with the
development of knowledge about bodies.
The statement of a physical law, general or of
material, requires the passing through the three essential
steps of the process of knowledge: a) the accumulation
of experimental facts (the sensorial step), b) the
formulation of the scientific hypothesis (the rational
step) and c) the verification in practice (the criterion of
truth).The experimental verification of law (general or of
material) requires the utilization of a concrete physical
model and the acceptation of some approximations over
the experimental verifications (the measurements).
80. The physical principles express specific properties of
bodies and fields or of some functions of primitive
physical quantities such as the momentum, the
energy and others. The pragmatic physics selects two
categories of physical principles: specific and
general.
The statement of a specific principle requires two
main steps which include the three essential steps of the
process of knowledge at a superior level of knowledge.
In the first step the general laws are used and theorems
for idealized physical models are demonstrated. In the
second step the theorems are verified experimentally on
concrete physical models which imply laws of material,
and principles of conservations of some derived physical
quantities (defined as functions of primitive physical
quantities) are stated.
The statement of a general principle requires the
study of the physical quantities, primitive and derived, in
order to extract some general properties. This way the
first two general physical principles are stated which
refer to bodies and forces: the impenetrability of bodies
and the overlapping of forces. After the statement of the
general and material laws other general principles can be
discovered, for instance, the action and the reaction of
forces (mechanical, electro dynamical, thermodynamic),
the inertia of the speeds (rectilinear and circular) in
mechanics and the inertia of fluxes (electric and
magnetic) in electrodynamics.
The number of principles, specific and general, is not
determined and it can grow along with the discovery of
some common properties (of conservation or of inertia)
of the primitive or derived physical quantities.
90. The Principle of Determinism. Be NP the number of
primitive physical quantities and NL the number of general
physical laws. The difference NP – NL > 0 is the number of
fundamental physical quantities to which we associate NF
independent etalons of measurement: NF = NP – NL
The general laws of physics and the primitive
physical quantities satisfy the principle of determinism if
the NF independent etalons of the fundamental physical
quantities can be identified without the general laws of
physics. In these conditions the other NP – NF = NL
primitive physical quantities can be identified with the
NL general laws.
100. Approximations and successive iterations. The
physical theory is elaborated through approximations
and successive iterations upon knowledge. The
macroscopic physics is the first approximation of the
pragmatic physics and the microscopic physics is the
second approximation of the pragmatic theory.
The microscopic theory is elaborated as a continuation
of the macroscopic theory. The general laws and the
primitive quantities from the macroscopic theory are
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Scientific Bulletin of the Electrical Engineering Faculty – Year 10 No. 1 (12)
ISSN 1843-6188
fundament the rejection of Einstein’s theory in which E
= mc2 and E = m.
extrapolated in the microscopic theory with some
adaptations. The microscopic theory continues with the
identification of the microscopic entities (molecules, atoms,
nuclei, elementary particles) and ends with the analytical
demonstration of the material laws from macroscopic
theory.
4. INSIGHT IN MICROSCOPICAL PHYSICS
We take over the microscopic physical knowledge
from the end of the 19th century and we add elements of
pragmatic physics ignoring the relativistic and quantum
theories developed in the 20th century. This direct
approach of microscopic physics leads to pragmatic
results which verify some traditional experiments and
eliminate some “physical anomalies” caused by utopian
theories of traditional physics.
We describe elementary particles and nuclear
particles from the periodic table of elements
(Mendeleyev) but we also add pragmatic hypotheses. In
a first step (iteration) of the microscopic physics we
ignore other elementary or nuclear particles discovered
in the cosmic radiations by traditional physics.
3. GENERAL LAWS OF PHYSICS
The system of general laws of physics expresses 10
physical-mathematical relations between 15 primitive
quantities according to the chart below as it follows:
Two general laws for mechanics: the law of
dynamics (1) and the law of gravity (2). Seven general
laws for electrodynamics: two external laws (the law of
electric force (3) and the law of magnetic force (4)), two
internal laws (the law of electric induction (5) and the
law of magnetic induction (6)), two laws of evolution
(the law of electromagnetic induction (7) and the law of
magnetic circuit and of magneto electric induction (8))
and the law of electric charge (9). One general law for
thermodynamics: the law of the perfect gas (10).
The system of fundamental physical quantities in
number of NF= 15 – 10 = 5 contains: three universal
fundamental quantities (distance r, time t, force F), and
two specific fundamental quantities: (the current i and the
thermodynamic temperature T). The independent etalons
of the fundamental quantities are called: 1) meter (m), 2)
second (s), 3) newton (N), 4) ampere (A), 5) kelvin (K).
Three from the primitive quantities are the universal
(r, t, F). The others are specific primitive quantities
assigned to three domains of macroscopic physics: 2 in
mechanics, 8 in electrodynamics, and 2 in
thermodynamics.
4.1. Elementary particles
We admit the existence of only two classes of
indestructible elementary particles: the proton p and the
electron e. The elementary particles have spherical shape
and the following characteristics are universal physical
constants: the radiuses rp = 1.500  10-15 m and re =
1.225  10-16 m, the masses mp= 1.673  10-27 kg and me
= 9.901  10-31 kg, the electric charges qp = 1.602  10-19
C and qe = - 1.6  10-19 C, the spin magnetic moments
μsp= 1.411  10-26 J/T and μse= -928.5  10-26J/T.
The traditional references don’t provide information
concerning the measured radius of the electron but prove
that the classical radius of the electron is re classicall =
2.8  10-15 m. We notice that the classical radius re classical
surpasses the radius of the proton so we must reject the
traditional demonstration. We calculate the radius of the
electron from the relation (re/rp)3 = me/mp, which implies
a pragmatic hypothesis: the mass densities of the
elementary particles are equal.
A controversial matter in traditional literature is the
spin movement of the electron which causes a spin speed
[6] greater than speed of light in vacuum. The physicists
consider this result a physical anomaly which the traditional
theory will be eliminated at some future moment.
The traditional references don’t provide information
concerning the internal structure of the elementary
particles. We admit two hypotheses regarding the mass
and electric charge densities of the elementary particles:
1) the masses mp, me are uniformly distributed in the
spherical volumes of the particles and 2) the electric
charges qp, qe are uniformly distributed on the spherical
surfaces of the particles. Lacking these assumptions, the
traditional theory introduces the utopia of quanta: the
spin movements of the particles are quantified [6] and
the quantum numbers are half-integer numbers.
Figure 1: Chart of general laws
The pragmatic theory of general laws (10 general
laws) and of primitive quantities (15 primitive
quantities) justifies the Pragmatic System (SP) of
units of measurement with 5 independent etalons m, s,
N, A, K.
The International System (SI) of units of measurement
of traditional physics contains 7 fundamental etalons
which are not independent. In spite of its lacks,
commented in [6], the system SI has a quality also found
in SP of rejecting the relations ε0 = μ0 = c = 1 in the
system of units Gauss. As a consequence SI and SP
4.2 Nuclear particles
We describe two types of nuclear particles: 1) the
pragmatic neutron y (fig 2, b) which differs from the
traditional neutron n and 2) the pragmatic particle α (Fig. 2,
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Scientific Bulletin of the Electrical Engineering Faculty – Year 10 No. 1 (12)
ISSN 1843-6188
6.673  10-12 γu; R2 = 0.229 m; R4 = 0.480  10-2 m; R6 =
1.017  10-4 m.
We calculate only three forces of interaction among
elementary particles: Fee electron- electron, Fpp protonproton, Fep electron-proton. We consider the attractive
forces (gravitational and Coulomb) positive and the
repulsive forces (Coulomb) negative. We give estimative
results on the hypothesis that distances between the pairs of
particles are minimal (the spheres of the pairs of particles ee, p-p, e-p are tangent): Fee = 4.718  1026 N and Fpp =
3.149  1026 N and Fpp  3.149 10 27 N and Fep  2.337 1014 N .
c) which differs from the traditional particle with the same
name. We underline the following: 1) the neutron (y or n) is
a constituent of atomic nuclei and 2) the particle α
(pragmatic or traditional) is the nucleus of the Helium atom.
The pragmatic neutron y = p + e is made of a proton
p and an electron e which slides on the surface of the
proton, according to figure 2 b. It can be considered that
the neutron comes from a Hydrogen atom H (Fig. 2, a) in
which the planetary electron has been “thrown” on the
surface of the nucleus p. Due to the spin movements the
electric charges neutralize each (qn = qp + qe = 0) other
but don’t annihilate each other and the masses sum each
other (mn = mp + me) but don’t co-mass. The spin
magnetic moment of the neutron sn is measured and
then the orbital magnetic moment of the sliding electron
is calculated oe = sn - sp and sn = -0.965  10-26 A·m2
and oe = -2.374  10-26 A  m2.
(a)
The impressive values of the forces of gravitational
attraction between the nuclear particles explain the
remarkable stability of atomic nuclei.
5. NUCLEAR ENERGY
The neutron y bears free energy: kinetic energy of the
sliding electron which is to be extracted as heat. The free
energy of the neutron is the nuclear energy. We intend to
calculate the nuclear energy and to establish a method to
extract the nuclear energy from the atomic nucleus.
We express the speed of the sliding electron voe on the
circular orbit of radius rpe = rp + re as a function of orbital
magnetic moment oe, and then we express kinetic
energy Eoe of the sliding electron:
1
2oe
2
(13)
Eoe  me voe
voe 
2
qe rpe
(b)
With the relations (13) we calculate voe = 1.978  107
m/s and Eoe = 1.782  10-16 J. The sliding electron
becomes satellite of the proton if the variables voe and Eoe
surpass the maximal values: voe max = 2.248  1017 m/s
and Eoe max = 2.302  104 J. Our calculated estimative
results are compatible with some incomplete
experimental results, which are available to us [7]: Eo
Eo fluorine = 3.26 MeV, where
lithium = 8.6 MeV and
1 MeV = 1.6  10-13 J.
We try to extract the nuclear energy with the
assistance from the electrolysis of heavy water. D2O, or
D is deuterium, it first isotope of H. We notice
experimentally that the electrolysis is accompanied by
two microscopic phenomena: electrolytic dissociation
and nuclear transmutation.
The electrolytic dissociation of the molecule D2O
consists in the separation of two electrized particles: the
ion D+ and the ion DO-. The electrolytic dissociation
(Svante Arhenius) is a state of stationary equilibrium of
the ions D (positive) and DO (negative) under the action
of the gravitational and Coulomb forces. The positive
ion D is also called deuteron d = p + y and is the nucleus
of the atom of deuterium D.
The nuclear transmutation begins after electrical
tension (voltage) is applied between the electrodes of the
electrolytic bath. Under the action of the electric field
between electrodes determines the ordered movement
(displacement) of the positive ions D move towards
cathode. Under the action of the gravitational forces
some deuterium ions tend to approach at distances
around 10-10 m. In these conditions, any pair of deuterons
(c)
Figure 2: a) Hydrogen atom, b) pragmatic neutron, c)
pragmatic particle α.
The pragmatic particle α = 4p + 2e is made of four
protons and two electrons. The protons are disposed in
the vertices of square (Fig. 2, c) and the electrons are
situated in the free space between the protons. The mass
of the particle is m α = 4mp + 2me and the electric charge
is qα = 4qp +2qe = 2qp > 0.
4.3. Nuclear forces
There are two types of nuclear forces acting upon the
elementary particles: electrostatic and gravitational. The
electrostatic forces, attractive or repulsive between
particles are expressed by Coulomb’s theorem (11) and
the attractive gravitational forces are expressed by the
law of universal gravity (12) which is an extension of
law of gravity (Newton):
1 q1 q2
(11)
F
40 d122
F 
m1 m2  R22 R44 R66 
1 



d122  d122 d124 d126 
(12)
The physical constants from the relations (4) are
identified from the study of interdisciplinary phenomena
[6], macroscopic and microscopic. Here are the results in
the system of units SI: 0 = 8.846  10-12 u; γ =
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Scientific Bulletin of the Electrical Engineering Faculty – Year 10 No. 1 (12)
d = p + y transmute (Fig. 3) into a particle α = 4p + 2e,
along with the heating of the electrolyte.
ISSN 1843-6188
physical constants from the extended law of gravity. A
more accurate solution of the problem is the
simultaneous estimation of states and parameters of a
physical system in the microscopic theory.
6.2. Comments to paragraph 5.
The electrolysis of the heavy water has been used
since 1995 in scientific investigation [1]. The researches
have been stopped for two main reasons: 1) the
opposition of the physicists which demonstrated that the
fusion of the deuterons is not possible because of the
electric potential barrier and 2) the lack of financial
support.
The first mentioned reason is eliminated by our
pragmatic hypotheses concerning gravitational forces
between the elementary particles. The elimination of the
second reason shouldn’t be an issue as the financing of
the pragmatic research is derisory compared to the
billions of dollars spent for the experiment Geneva [8].
Figure 3. Two deuterons (D) fuse
and form the α particle
The kinetic energy of the sliding electrons is
transferred (through elastic collisions) to the electrolyte
until the reaching of thermal equilibrium and the
stabilization of the electrons in the free spaces from the
centers of the particles α. The nuclear transmutation
from 2d = 2p + 2y to α = 4p + 2e is an exothermal
nuclear reaction because the first component 2p + 2y
contains two sliding electrons which release kinetic
energy and become two stationary electrons in the free
space between four protons.The transition from the
physical system D + D to the system α is natural and is
accomplished with minimal loss of radiant energy
(neutrino). We say that the thermal energy obtained
through nuclear transmutation is a clean energy. The
installation of electrolysis of heavy water, with a cooling
circuit of the electrolyte is a generator of clean and
cheap thermal energy.
6.3. Experimental confirmation
Nuclear power was during the 20th century a great
hope of mankind to meet growing demand for energy.
Nuclear Engineering of the years 1950 - 2000 was based
solely on experimental results. That's how they built and
improved reactors to extract heat by bombarding
uranium with neutrons of the nuclei. Experiments have
shown that slow Neutron reactors are more effective than
fast neutron ones. The experimental results confirm the
hypothesis of the pragmatic neutron which releases the
kinetic energy of the electron and fissions nucleus of
uranium. Traditional theory can not explain the slow
neutron reaction (elementary particle without internal
energy) which causes the uranium nucleus fission,
accompanied by the release of a quantity of heat.
6. COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
We have developed the theory of nuclear energy as
an iteration of microscopic physics, starting from the
basic knowledge of macroscopic physics (paragraphs 2
and 3). We have run through the three essential steps of
the process of scientific knowledge as follows: 1) the
supplementation of macroscopic physical knowledge
with observations regarding interdisciplinary macrocosm
and microcosm phenomena, 2) the emission of pragmatic
hypotheses for the theory of nuclear energy and 3)
experimental checking of the emitted hypotheses. The
following conclusions refer to the paragraphs 4) and 5)
which correspond to the last steps of the process of
knowledge: the rational step and the criterion of truth.
6.4. Conclusions
Our paper "Identification and extraction of nuclear
power" can be called pragmatic theory of nuclear energy.
We note that the nuclear technique fusion uses two natural
phenomena, electrolytic dissociation and gravitational
forces, unlike nuclear fission technique which is
aggressive (bombarding nuclei) and accompanied by an
intense neutrino radiation. We say that the transition from
physical system d + d in the physical system α is quiet and
the released energy is clean.
Having provided a pragmatic theory of phenomena
in the process of electrolysis of heavy water, possible
improvements of the technique for extracting energy
from nuclear fusion are possible. We do not rule out the
prospect of a researcher who is setting up a garage and
start to produce cheap and clean energy generators.
6.1. Comments to paragraph 4.
We have proposed a system of elementary particles
p, e and nuclear particles y, α. The main problem of this
paragraph is the statement of the pragmatic hypotheses
for nuclear forces which remain unknown in traditional
theory. Our proposal is the extension of the law of
gravity and the identification of the physical constants
R2, R4, R6 from the study of some interdisciplinary
macrocosm and microcosm phenomena, such as: dark
matter, radiation belts Van Allen, terrestrial magnetism,
atom Bohr. We identified independently the
characteristics of the elementary particles and of the
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Scientific Bulletin of the Electrical Engineering Faculty – Year 10 No. 1 (12)
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