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CONTENTS
5
Maps xi
Figures xiii
Plates xv
Preface to the Second Edition xvii
Preface to the First Edition xix
Acknowledgments xxi
Notes to the Reader xxiii
1 Archaic Italy and the Origins of Rome
5
Italy and the Mediterranean World 1
Italy Before the City 4
Greeks and Phoenicians in the Central Mediterranean 5
The Rise of Cities 6
Beginning of Writing 7
Appearance of an Elite 7
Cities and Monumental Architecture 7
Warfare in the Orientalizing and Archaic Periods 9
Social and Economic Organization 9
Greeks and Etruscans 11
The Emergence of Rome 14
The Romans and Their Early History 17
Table 1.1 Dates of Rome’s Kings According to Varro 18
Source 1.1 Romulus Founds Rome (Plutarch) 18
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Politics and Society Under the Kings 19
Rome and the Latins 21
2 Republican Rome and the Conquest of Italy
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The Early Republic 24
Rome and Its Neighbors in the Fifth Century 26
Struggle of the Orders 27
Fall of Veii and the Sack of Rome 30
The City and Its Institutions in the Fourth Century 32
Officials 32
Senate 34
Assemblies of Citizens 36
Table 2.1 Roman Assemblies 36
The City, Its Gods, and Its Priests 39
Rome and Central Italy 41
Warfare and the Civic Order 41
Rome in Latium and Campania 42
Source 2.1 A Formal Surrender to Rome 42
Samnite Wars 45
Wars in Central and Northern Italy 46
Conquest of the South 47
War and the Roman State 48
3 The Beginnings of a Mediterranean Empire
5
The Nobility and the City of Rome 50
Source 3.1 Triumph of Scipio Africanus (Appian) 53
Wars with Carthage 54
First Punic War (264–241) 55
Second Punic War (218–201) 58
Source 3.2 Rome’s Reaction to Defeat at Cannae
(Polybius) 62
A Mediterranean Empire 64
Governors, Provinces, and Empire 64
Spain 66
Greece and Asia Minor 68
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Source 3.3 Popillius Laenas Forestalls Antiochus’ Invasion
of Egypt (Polybius) 72
North Africa 72
4 Italy and Empire
5
Senators, Officials, and Citizen Assemblies 74
Italy and the Consequences of Empire 77
Changing Relations Between Rome, Its Municipia,
and Allies 77
Roman and Italian Elites 79
Source 4.1 Scipio Africanus’ Army Loots Carthago
Nova (Polybius) 80
Demographic and Economic Changes 82
Roman Politics from the Mid-Second Century 84
Scipio Aemilianus 85
Tiberius Gracchus 86
Source 4.2 Tiberius Gracchus Urges Romans to Support his
Land-Assignment Scheme (Plutarch) 88
Gaius Gracchus 89
5 Italy Threatened, Enfranchised, Divided
5
Changes in Roman Society 94
War with Jugurtha (112–105) 98
Italy Threatened from the North (113–101) 99
Changes in the Roman Army 100
Marius’ Career in Roman Politics 101
Source 5.1 Marius’ Bid for the Consulship (Sallust) 102
Sixth Consulship of Marius and Second Tribunate
of Saturninus (100) 103
Administration of the Provinces 104
Tribunate of Livius Drusus (91) 107
Social War (91–87) 107
Tribunate of Sulpicius Rufus (88) 110
Sulla’s First March on Rome (88) 111
Cinna’s Rule (87–84) 112
Sulla’s Second March on Rome (83–82) 113
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6 The Domination of Sulla and Its Legacy
5
Sulla’s Proscriptions (82–81) 116
Sulla the Dictator and His Program (82–81) 117
Verdicts on Sulla’s Program 118
Lepidus’ Rising and Its Aftermath (78–77) 120
Source 6.1 Cicero’s Defense of Sextus Roscius 120
Challenge from Sertorius in Spain (80–73) 121
Spartacus’ Slave Revolt (73–71) 124
Consulship of Crassus and Pompey (70) 125
Pompey Frees the Mediterranean of Pirates (67) 125
Threat from King Mithridates VI of Pontus and Sulla’s
Response (87–85) 126
Campaigns of Lucullus and Pompey Against Mithridates
(74–63) 128
Roles of Crassus and Cicero in Rome (65–63) 130
Catiline’s Rising (63–62) 134
7 End of the Republic: Caesar’s Dictatorship
5
Pompey’s Return from the East (62) 136
Pompey and Political Stalemate in Rome 137
Partnership of Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar 139
Caesar’s First Consulship (59) 139
Clodius’ Tribunate (58) 141
Cicero’s Recall and the Renewal of the Triumvirate (57–56) 142
Caesar’s Campaigns in Gaul (58–51) 143
Death of Clodius and Pompey’s Sole Consulship (52) 144
Prospect of Civil War (51–49) 148
Causes and Consequences of Caesar Crossing the Rubicon
(January 49) 149
Civil War Campaigns (49–45) 150
Caesar’s Activity as Dictator (49–44) 152
Caesar’s Impact upon the City of Rome 156
Political Prospects for Rome and for Caesar 156
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8 Augustus and the Transformation of the Roman World
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Reactions to the Assassination of Caesar (44–43) 160
Emergence of a Second Triumvirate (43) 164
Battle of Philippi (42) 165
Perusine War (41–40) 166
Elimination of Sextus Pompey and Lepidus (39–36) 167
Source 8.1 Laudatio Turiae 168
Antony in the East (42 Onwards) 169
Clash Between Antony and Octavian (36–30) 171
Octavian as Sole Ruler (30 Onwards) 172
“The Republic Restored” 173
Second Settlement (23) 175
The Roman Family in the Augustan Period 176
Table 8.1 The Julio-Claudian Family 178
Succession 179
Senate and Equites 181
Army 183
Source 8.2 Oath of Loyalty 185
The Empire and Its Expansion 185
City of Rome 189
Attitudes Outside Rome 191
Augustus: Final Assessment 191
9 The Early Principate ( . . 14–69): The Julio-Claudians,
5
ad
the Civil War of 68–69, and Life in the Early Empire
The Julio-Claudian Emperors: Civil Government and Military
Concerns 193
Tiberius (14–37) 194
Gaius (Caligula) (37–41) 195
Claudius (41–54) 196
Nero (54–68) 199
Civil War in 68–69 201
Economic and Social Change: Army 204
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“Beneficial Ideology” 205
Cities and Provinces 206
Diversity: Women, Local Languages, and Culture 207
Religious Practices and Principles 209
Imperial Cult 211
1 0 Military Expansion and Its Limits: The Empire and the
5
Provinces (69–138)
Institutionalization of the Principate 213
Vespasian (69–79) 214
Titus (79–81) 216
Domitian (81–96) 217
A New, Better Era? 217
Nerva (96–98) 219
Trajan (98–117) 220
Table 10.1 The Antonine Family 224
Hadrian (117–138) 225
Source 10.1 Hadrian Inspects Troops at Lambaesis,
Numidia 227
Roman Cities and the Empire’s Peoples 228
Theaters and Processions 228
Circuses and Chariot Racing 231
The Amphitheater and Gladiatorial Games 231
Other Urban Amenities and Education 233
1 1 Italy and the Provinces: Civil and Military Affairs (138–235)
5
Antoninus Pius (138–161) 237
Source 11.1 A Greek Provincial Praises Roman
Citizenship 239
Marcus Aurelius (161–180) and Lucius Verus (161–169) 239
Commodus (176–192, Sole Augustus after 180) 243
Septimius Severus (193–211) 245
Caracalla (198–217, Sole Augustus After 211) 247
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Macrinus (217–218) 248
Elagabalus (218–222) 248
Table 11.1 The Severan Family 249
Severus Alexander (222–235) 250
Roman Law 251
Roman Citizenship 252
Source 11.2 Grant of Roman Citizenship (Tabula
Banasitana) 253
Rome and Christianity 256
Source 11.3 Pliny, Trajan, and Christians 257
1 2 The Third-Century Crisis and the Tetrarchic Restabilization
5
Mid-Third Century 261
Aurelian (270–275) 265
Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (284–305) 266
Dissolution of the Tetrarchy (305–313) and the Rise
of Constantine (306–324) 270
Source 12.1 Galerius’ Edict of Toleration 272
Administrative Reorganization Under the Dominate 273
1 3 The Rise of Christianity and the Growth of the Barbarian
5
Threat (324–395)
Constantine: A Christian Emperor 281
The Sons of Constantine (337–361): The Power of Dynasty 285
Table 13.1 The Constantinian Family 286
Julian (361–363): A Test of the Christian Empire 290
Source 13.1 Julian Attempts to Bring Paganism into Line with
Christianity 291
Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens (363–378) 291
Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius I (379–395) 293
New Elites for the Empire 296
Paganism and Christianity 298
Source 13.2 The End of Pagan Sacrifice 299
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1 4 The Final Years of the Western Empire and Rome’s Revival
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in the East
The Theodosian Dynasty Down to the First Sack of Rome
(395–410) 302
Table 14.1 The Theodosian Family 303
The Fall of the Western Empire (410–476) 308
Source 14.1 The Gothic King Athaulf’s Shifting Attitude
Toward Rome 309
The Growth of a Byzantine Empire in the East (408–491) 311
A Christian Culture 315
Women’s Power in Late Antiquity 319
The “Decline and Fall” of the Roman Empire 320
Timeline 323
Glossary 328
Art Credits 338
Gazetteer 340
Index 344
Color plate follows p. 168
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