Download An Exploratory Examination in to National Safety Council`s Fear

An Exploratory Examination in to National Safety Council’s Fear Appeal
Advertisements through the Use of the Irish Television Media
Author: Elaine Duff
A dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the
award of the BA in European Business Studies and Languages.
National College of Ireland
Mayor Street
I.F.S.C
Dublin 1
Supervisor: Mr Serge Basini
May 2004
Declaration
I hereby certify that this material, which I now submit for assessment on the programme
of study leading to the award of a BA in European Business Studies and Languages, is
entirely my own work and has not been submitted for assessment for any other academic
purpose other than in partial fulfilment for that stated above.
Signe<
Elaine Duff
Acknowledgements
Firstly I would like to express appreciation to my family, especially my parents who
have provided me with every kind of love and support throughout my life. I would not
have been able to do half the things I ve done without them.
To Des and Molly, thanks so much for EVERYTHING, as always!!!! (Especially
when things get too technical for me)
I would also like to extend my gratitude to Caroline Spillane, NSC, for all her help. It
was much appreciated.
To my supervisor, Mr Serge Basini, thank you for your valuable help and advice in
guiding me through the writing of this dissertation.
And finally, to the best friends in the world, Angela, Caoimhe, Claire ( the NCI Coffee
buds!!) and Myles. You have all served your time at listening to me going on and it’s
much appreciated. Grumpy, thank so much for help through this year!
i.
Title Page
ii.
Declaration
i ii.
Acknowledgements
iv.
Table of Contents
v.
Abstract
Chapter One - Literature Review
1.0 Introduction
2
1.2 Advertising
2
1.3 Changing Attitudes and Behaviors
3
1.3 Emotional Appeals in Advertisements
6
1.3.1 Types of Emotions
7
1.3.2 Why Use Emotion in Advertising
9
1.4 Introduction to Fear Appeals
10
1.4.1 Fear Appeals
10
1.4.2 Important Components of the Fear Appeal Process
11
1.4.3 Outcome Variables Of Fear Appeals
12
1.4.4 Physical versus Social Threats in Fear Appeals
12
1.4.5 Two Different Uses of Fear Appeals in Advertisings 13
1.4.6 How Fear Appeal Works
14
1.4.7 Fear Appeal Model
14
1.4.8 The Parallel Process Model
14
1.4.9 Protection Motivation Theory
15
1.4.10 Segmentation
15
1.4.11 Factors to Consider When Using Fear Appeals
16
1.5 Conclusion
18
Chapter Two Advertising Industry in Ireland
iv
2.0 Introduction
24
2.1 Advertising Industiy in Ireland
24
2.2.1 The Regulation of Advertising In Ireland
25
2.2.2 Fear Appeals in Irish Advertising
25
2.2.3 Legislation Governing Alcohol Advertising in Ireland 26
2.2.4 Advertising Expenditures in Ireland
26
2.2 The Irish Television Industiy in Ireland
28
2.2 Competition in the Industiy
29
2.3 The Alcohol Industry in Ireland
30
2.3.1
Drinking Patterns in Ireland
31
2.4 Drink Driving in Ireland
32
2.4.1 The national Safety Council
2.4.2 Shame Advertisement
33
33
2.5 Conclusion
Chapter Three Research Methodology
3.0 Introduction to methodology
37
3.1 Research Question and Objectives
38
3.2 Nature of the Research
39
3.2.1 Exploratory Research
3 .3 Research Designs
39
39
3.3.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Research
39
3.3.2 Qualitative Research
41
3.3.3 Evaluation of Qualitative Research
41
3.4 Chosen Form of Data Collection
41
3.4.1 Secondary Research Data
42
3.4.2 Primary Research
43
3.4.3 Evaluation of Focus Groups
44
v
3.4.3 Pre Data Detection Selection
45
3.4.4 Facilitators Role in the Focus Group
46
3 .4 .5 Location of Focus Group
47
3.4 .6 Length of Focus Group
47
3.4.7 Materials Used in Focus Group
47
3.4.8 Recording the Focus Group
48
3 .5 The Sampling Process
49
3.5.1 Defining the Population
49
3.5.2 Determining the Sampling Frame
50
3.5.3 Selecting the Sampling Technique
50
3.5.4 Determining the Sampling Size
51
3.5.5 The Respondents
51
3.6 Data Analysis
52
3.7 Presenting the Findings
53
3 .8 Conclusion
54
Chapter Four Research Analysis and Findings
\
4.0 Introduction
57
4.1 Emergent Themes from the Discussion
58
4.1.1 Themes in Relation to the Research Objective 158
4.1.2 Fear
58
4.1.3 Recognition of Emotions
59
4.1.4 Awareness
60
4.1.5 Reactions to Fear
60
4.1.6 Channel Switching
62
4.1.7 Plays in your Mind
62
4.1.8 Male Drivers
63
4.1.9 Penalty Points
64
4.1.10 Sound Effects and Theme Music
65
4.1.11 Realism
66
4.1.12 Relevance
4.2 Conclusion
67
69
Chapter Five Conclusions and Recommendation
5.0 Introduction
72
5.2 Recommendations for Future Study
74
5.3 Limitations of the Research
75
5.4 Final Conclusion
76
Bibliography
77
Appendix
Abstract
This dissertation qualitatively examines emotional appeals in advertisements. Fear
appeal has been chosen as the context to be researched. It is thought by the author the
emotional appeals, particularly fear appeals, hold many interesting areas that warrant
exploration. The relevance of fear appeals in Ireland today, in relation to the National
Safety Councils road safety campaigns, has been chosen as the basis of this research
study.
Chapter One: This chapter examines theory behind the use of emotional appeals, in
particularly fear appeals. Gaining an insight into this area provides the author with a
foundation for understanding the process of persuasive advertising.
Chapter Two: The objective of this chapter is to gain an insight into the advertising
industry in Ireland, through the use of the Irish television media.
Chapter Three: This chapter describes how the research is designed and carried out.
The objectives are also set out and the rationale behind them is explained.
Chapter Four: The results o f the Research will be interpreted in tlus chapter through
content analysis, which is grouping similar themes together.
Chapter Five: Following on from the analysis and interpretations of the previous
chapter, the researcher draws conclusions on the important information obtained.
Recommendations for further study are outlined, along with ttfe limitations present in
this research study.
I would like to dedicate this to my Mum and Dad
a token of my appreciation for all their love and support
throughout the years
Chapter One
Literature Review
National
College
Ireland
Literature Review
1.0 Introduction
Theory surrounding fear appeals in advertising is discussed throughout this chapter in
order to gain a comprehensive knowledge into how those appeals can proceed in
changing consumers’ attitudes and behaviours. The aim of the literature review is to
gain a better insight and understanding into how advertising affects individuals, both
directly and indirectly. Advertisers seek to persuade consumers to change their
attitudes and behaviours by using a persuasive message content such as emotional
appeals.
1.2 Advertising
In a competitive market many firms seek to differentiate their offerings through
communication and promotional techniques. The various promotional options
available to the marketer are referred to as the promotional mix, Rogan (2000).
According to Jobber (2001), there are five major elements of the promotional mix.
These include advertising, personal selling, direct marketing, sales promotion and
publicity. Kolter and Armstrong (2004) also include sponsorship as an important
element. A key marketing decision as indicated by Rogan (2000) is the selection or
combination o f these components needed to communicate to the target audience.
Rogan (2000) continues by pointing out that although there has been an increase in
sales promotion techniques with a greater use of direct mailing and sponsorship
“ ...advertising generally remains the most important communication medium for
many companies”.
A simple but precise definition of advertising is “ ...the action of calling something to
the attention o f the public, especially by paid announcements”, Hart (1995). Wells et al
(2003) also define advertising in similar terms as a
“ ... paid non personal
communication from an identified sponsor using mass media to persuade or influence
an audience”. Advertising includes such mediums as press, publications, posters, radio,
television, cinema and outdoor advertising.
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Literature Review
An advertising objective, indicated by Kolter and Armstrong (2004), is a particular
communication mission to be accomplished with a specified target audience at a
relevant time, Kolter and Armstrong (2004). Generally, advertising messages can be
classified by their purpose, which can be “to inform or persuade”, Kolter and
Armstrong (2004).
Informative advertisements are those that elicit information about a product in order to
inform the consumer. Persuasive advertisements try to persuade consumers to buy the
product, usually by comparison with other brands.
1.3 Changing Attitudes and Behaviours
“Marketers goal is to persuade people by changing pre-existing attitudes and beliefs to
influence behaviour”, Mowen (1995). The word attitude is derived from the Latin
word “aptus” meaning “fitness” or “adaptedness”, Mowen (1995). By the end of the
eighteenth century “Charles Darwin used the,word in a biological sense as a physical
expression of an emotion”, Mowen (1995). Researchers now a days tend to associate
“ ...attitudes with physiological tendencies .to approach or avoid something”, Mowen
(1995).
In order to provide a definition for the term attitude, Petty and Cacioppo (1981:), as
cited in Clark et al (1994), define it as “ ... a general and enduring (consistent over
time) negative or positive evaluation of a person, object or issue”. Assel (1998) also
provides a similar explanation of attitudes as “... learned predispositions to respond to
an object or class of objects in a consistently favourable or unfavourable way”.
There are three components of attitudes put forward by Assel (1998), which are the
“cognitive component (thinking), the affective component (feeling) and the conative
component (behavioural)”. Shiffrnan and Kanuk (2000:223) classify these three
components as the TriComponent Attitude Model.
Cognitive Component: This is the thinking element of attitudes and rests on the
characteristics, which consumers believe to assign to a brand. Beliefs are “multi
dimensional” as they represent the consumers perceived attributes to a brand, Assel
(1998).
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Literature Review
Affective Component: This represents the feeling element of attitudes and is the
consumers overall evaluation of the brand. Evaluation is the key concept of attitudes as
it summarises consumer’s tendencies to be favourable or unfavourable to a brand.
Assel (1998) states that beliefs influence evaluations and evaluations influence the
intention to consume.
Behavioural Component: This signifies consumer’s reactions or behaviour towards a
brand and is generally measured by their intention to buy, Assel (1998). Marketers can
ultimately appeal to the behavioural component of attitudes with out influencing either
beliefs or evaluations, Assel (1998).
Mowen (1995) suggests that firstly it is necessary to change consumer’s beliefs in
order to influence behaviour. The persuasive communication process appears capable
o f influencing attitude changes among consumers, Loudon and Della Bitta (1993).
Persuasion is defined by Mowen (1995) “ ... as the explicit attempt to influence beliefs
and attitudes”.
Mowen (1995) suggests that the process through which persuasion occurs is whether it
takes place un d er high or low involvement conditions. The Elaboration Likelihood
Model (ELM) demonstrates the decision-making path to belief, attitude and behaviour
change, Mowen (1995).
The persuasion process begins when the consumer receives a communication message.
The message is processed by the consumer in terms of the nature and content of the
message and the consumer’s perceived relevance in relation to low or high
involvement. Depending upon the degree of involvement that consumers experience
with the product, belief and attitude changes can occur in two ways: the central route
and the peripheral route.
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Literature Review
Figurel .1
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
Peripheral Route
Source; Mowen (1995)
Central Route: Changes in attitude and beliefs by means of the central route come
^
about when the consumer concentrates carefully on the message. “The person
diligently considers the communication and compares it to his or her own attitudinal
position”, Mowen (1995). As the amount of involvement in the decision making
process increases, consumers tend to engage in problem solving activities, Solomon
(1999). An ability to process the information generates cognitive responses, Mowen
(1995). The degree to which these cognitive responses are encouraging to the message
can change consumer beliefs, Mowen (1995). Once beliefs have been changed,
consumers may also change attitudes. Mowen (1995) suggests
that belief and
attitude change, which occur through the central route, are relatively enduring and
predictive of behaviour”.
Peripheral Route: Changes in attitudes in the peripheral route occur differently as the
consumer engages in low involvement information processing. The consumer is not
motivated to involve themselves in extensive problem solving, Solomon (1999).
Peripheral indicators are employed to determine whether to accept or reject the
message, such as attractiveness or positive or negative stimuli, Mowen (1995). In these
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Literature Review
circumstances, beliefs may be formed or changed, behaviour is modified and finally
attitude formation can occur.
Loudon and Della Bitta (1993) advocate that it is reasonable for marketers to use
emotional appeals in their attempts to persuade consumers. He maintains that
emotional appeals are potentially usefully in influencing consumers’ attitudes and/or
behaviour towards the advertised brand.
Burke and Edell (1989) propose that emotions educed by advertisements can influence
and impact on attitudes. They continue by explaining that emotional feelings are linked
directly to the advertisements characteristics, brand evaluations and attitudes. The
principal means available to marketers for influencing attitude change is the design and
implementation o f persuasive communication messages, Loudon and Della Bitta
(1993).
1.3 Emotional Appeals in Advertisements
“An aspect of advertising that is particularly unique is the mood state associated with
the context. Such states are very important to advertisers because feelings are
intrinsically tied to the effectiveness of advertisements”, Loudon and Della Bitta
(1993). As quoted by Rogan (2000:89) “ ... advertising practitioners use a host of
credible strategies to induce moods that facilitate the achievement of their strategic
goals”. Wells et al, (2003) argue that “...advertisers that touch people’s emotions with
their messages have a greater success in getting consumers to remember that
message”.
The message should get attention, hold interest, arouse desire and obtain action, Wells
et al (2003). According to Milner, (1995) advertising objectives are often classified
under two headings: to inform and to persuade. Therefore, there are two main types of
message appeals: rational and emotional.
Rational appeals are “message appeals that relate to the audience’s self interest and
show that the product will produce the claimed benefits”, Kolter et al (2002). “These
types of appeals focus on the consumers practical, functional or utilitarian need for the
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Literature Review
product or service and/or specific reasons for owning a particular brand”, Tristate.edu
(2004) “Persuasive rational appeals often contain factual information, which the
consumer considers before making a purchasing decision”, Shiftman and Kanuk
(2000:223). Gore et al, (1998) suggest “ ...that in many instances recipients are unable
or unmotivated to effectively process rational appeals. It is in such instances that
emotional persuasive appeals maybe found to be more effective”.
In an effort to provide a definition of what an emotional appeal is Kolter, (2003)
defines it as an
. attempt to stir up either negative or positive emotions that can
motivate a purchase or action”. Edell and Burke (1987) claim “ ...that all
advertisements convey emotion, regardless of their intent to do so or not”. To
strengthen this argument Zeitlin and Westwood, (1986) also believe that “every
advertising communication evokes some emotion. But some advertisements evoke far
more emotion than others”.
As Edell and Staelin (1983), as cited in Zinn and Manfredo (2000) conclude that
“rational appeals are objective statements of information that can be verified
independently whereas emotional appeals tend to provide subjective information open
to individual interpretation”.
1.3.1 Types of Emotion
By their very nature, advertising messages exist to persuade consumers through
whatever means possible, ciadvertising.org (2004). Zeitlin and Westwood (1986) state
that “ ... an emotional tone can draw attention to a message, make it memorable, or
even illustrate the benefit in action”. Through the different message tones available,
advertisers seek to captivate the audience. Many theorists have categorised emotion in
to different headings.
Huang (1986) differentiates between basic and social emotions. In her article she
defines basic emotions as being “... universal in all demographic groups” which
include anger, love, fear, sadness and happiness. Similar to Zeitlin and Westwood
(1986), Huang believes that it is from these basic emotions that social emotions
develop.
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Literature Review
Zeitlin and Westwood (1986) distinguish between primary and secondary emotions.
They identified eight primary emotions and claim that these
are the essence of
emotional existence”, Zeitlin and Westwood (1986:37). The eight primary emotions
are anticipation, acceptance, surprise, joy, fear, anger, sadness and disgust. They
believe that these eight emotions can be related to each other in some form or another.
As they explain in their article, “disgust is somewhat related to anger and is
functionally the opposite of acceptance”. To simplify this, Zeitlin and Westwood
(1986) developed a circumplex to highlight their theory of relationships between the
primary emotions.
Figure: 1.2 The Eight Prim ary Emotions
Source: Zeitlin & Westwood (1986.37)
Zeitlin and Westwood (1986) declare that the eight emotions are rarely seen in their
true existence. They believe that secondary emotions can be frequently observed and
are a mixture o f two or more primary emotions. They provide an example of such an
emotion as being: “alarm is a state of surprise mixed with fear”, Zeitlin and Westwood
(1986:37)
Another method, reported by Schwartz & Shaver (1987) is to categorising emotion in
to positive and negative emotions. They developed this theory, which rests on a
hierarchical table of emotional needs. Love and joy are the two main positive emotions
of which arousal, longing, excitement and pleasure are the co ordinates. Similarly,
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Literature Review
irritation, disgust and anxiety are the subordinates of the two main negative emotions,
which are anger and fear, Huang (1998).
1.3.2 Why Use Emotion in Advertisements
Advertisers have to work harder to get their advertising messages through to
consumers because of devises such as remote controls VCRs, DVDs and general
advertising cutler. They are constantly looking for new ways to captivate the audience.
“Increasingly advertisers try to grab the attention of viewers by provoking an
emotional response”, Hyman and Tansey (1990).
In their article Zinn and Manfredo (2000) detail that message appeals that are laded
with emotion are more easily remembered than those message appeals that induce little
emotion. To continue, Edell and Staelin (1983), as cited in Zinn and Manfredo (2000)
theorise that information which can be easily remembered will influence behaviour
more readily than information that is more difficult to remember. In the same article,
Zinn and Manfredo (2000) point out that rational appeals sometimes only elicit
thoughtful comparisons of arguments in the appeal to beliefs that the respondent
already knows. “Emotional advertising has been shown to affect customers’ reactions
to advertisements, to enhance their attention and to effect brand attitudes”, Mattila
(1999). Zeitlin and Westwood (1986) believe that emotional appeals draw on our most
basic human instincts.
Literature Review
1.4 Introduction to Fear Appeals
Generally, marketing communications attempt to inform consumers of the benefits of
using a product or service yet, advertisements using fear appeals does the opposite as
they inform consumers of the risks of using or not using a specific product,
Meenaghan and O’ Sullivan (1995). Hymen and Tansey (1990), as cited in Latour and
Snipes (1996) believe that the primary reason for the growth in fear appeal popularity
is because “advertisers have found them to increase the interest and persuasiveness of
individual ads”. Hymen and Tansey (1990) as cited in Latour and Snipes (1996) also
noted that people exposed to ads which portrayed fear, could remember them much
better than other “warm” or “upbeat” ads that had no emotional content.
1.4.1 Fear Appeals
Fear appeals in messages attempt to persuade consumers to act in a desired manner by
h
exemplifying the terrible consequences of not acting in the recommended way, Bennett
(1996). According to Latour and Snipes (1996) “a fear appeal is a type of psychoactive
^
ad which is capable of arousing fear in the viewer regarding the effect of the viewer’s
;^k
sub optimal lifestyle”. Advertising messages that use fear appeals aim to stimulate
pi
anxiety or tension among an audience and are often referred to as “shock and scare
tactics”, Witte (1994).
Individual’s responses to fear appeals are related to the “ ...individuals’ opinion of the
issue’s importance, their perceived likelihood that the negative outcome will occur and
their belief that a change in behaviour would affect the feared outcome”, Witte and
Allen (2000). Witte and Allen (2000) continue by stating that “fear as an appeal works
best when you make people very afraid and then show them how to reduce that fear by
doing what is recommended”. Glascoff (2000) states that “ ... the message needs to
provide a meaningful threat and specific actions an individual can take to reduce the
problem” in order for the appeal to be successful.
Some researchers have discovered that invoking too much fear “touches off intense
feelings o f anxiety” which causes people to avoid the advertisement altogether.
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Literature Review
However, Witte and Allen (2000) believe that fear appeals are most successful when
they provide “high levels of threat and high levels of efficacy”,
1.4.2 Important Components of the Fear Appeal Process
Witte (1994) identifies three main components of fear appeals: fear, threat and
efficacy.
Fear
Fear is an actual emotional response that can induce changes in attitude or behaviour
intentions and consumer actions, LaTour and Rotfeld (1997). It is related to other
feelings such as fright, discomfort and disgust, Baltra, Myers and Aaker (1996). “Fear
is a primitive instinct which can occasionally guide and activate human behaviour. It
creates anxiety and tension, causing people to seek ways to reduce these feelings”
LaTour and Zahra (1989).
Threat
“A threat is an external stimulus variable that exists whether the person knows it or
not” Witte (1992). If an individual believes that a specific threat can exist, then the
individual is “perceiving a threat”, Witte (1992). A threat is something which poses as
a risk to an individual’s safety, Glascoff (2000). Perceived severity is the serious that
an individual believes a threat to be, while perceived susceptibility is an individual’s
belief that a threat is relevant to them, Witte (1992).
Efficacy
In this context, efficacy refers to how effective the respondent views the recommended
response in preventing the proposed threat and self-efficacy is the respondents’ ability
to carry out the recommended response, Rogers (1975) as cited in Witte (1992).
Perceived self-efficacy is defined by Witte (1992) as the respondent’s belief in their
own capability that they can perform the recommended response action.
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Literature Review
1.4.3 Outcome Variables of Fear Appeals
Witte (1992) states that the typical outcome in fear appeals is message acceptance,
which she defines as attitude, intention or behavior change. Other outcomes can be
defensive avoidance and reactance.
Witte (1992) states that defensive avoidance is a provoked resistance to a message,
which can take the form of denial or minimization of the threat exposure. People may
defensively avoid a message by refusing to think about the threat or by looking away
and being inattentive to the communication. Witte (1992) continues by explaining that
reactance occurs when an individual believes that their free liberties are reduced and
that the communication is trying to make the person change.
1.4.4. Physical versus Social Threats in Fear Appeals
“Fear appeals highlight a fearfully situation that is likely to affect the recipients’
physical or social self’ LaTour and Zahra (1989).
Agres et al (1990), researchers of fear appeals in advertising have investigated two
types of threats to the receiver: physical and social threats. As stated in their research,
Agres et al (1990) define a physical threat as a “fear that would include harm to the
body” and a social threat as a “fear of disapproval by peers or other associates of some
action or characteristic possessed by the receiver o f the message”. Schoenbachler and
Whittier (1996) extend their definition of a physical threat to include a fear o f “the lack
of personal security” and define a social threat as affecting the “individual’s social
well being which could result in isolation or shame”.
Traditionally, market research has focused on physical threats. However, as pointed
out by Agres et al (1990) “the most common use of fear is social disapproval”. In a
study carried out by R. Evans, R. Rozelle, T. Lasater, T. Dembroski, and B. Allen
(1970) as cited in Agres et al (1990) it was concluded that “fear was more effective in
persuading potential consumers when it dealt with social rather than physical threats”.
However, various other studies carried out have produced contradictory results.
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Literature Review
Schoenbachler and Whittier (1996) point out that message’s containing physical
threats were more effective than social threats. Schoenbachler and Whittier (1996)
conclude that these conflicting results could be based on different characteristics o f the
audiences.
1.4.5 Two different uses of Fear Appeals in Advertising
LaTour and Zahra (1989) declare that marketers used fear appeals to stimulate interest
in products and services. Fear appeals are most commonly used in the advertising of
products, services or social causes, Witte and Allen (2000). The two main categories
that use fear appeals are social marketing and product marketing.
Anderson (1995) defines social marketing as “the application of commercial marketing
technologies to the analysis, planning, execution and evaluation of programmes
designed to influence the voluntary behaviour of target audiences in order to improve
their personal welfare and that of society”. It is a marketing solution to social and
health problems that encourages people to adopt certain behaviours that will enhance
their own lives and those of others. Batra, Myers and Aaker (1996). Quite frequently
the threats in such campaigns are related to ill health and death such as the spread of
aids, stress, smoking and drink driving.
Product marketing tries to encourage people to consume more by portraying the
possible immediate benefits that can be gained from using a product, Batra, Myers and
Aaker (1996). Fear can also be used in appealing to a social threat in the product
marketing of such products as anti- wrinkling creams, toothpaste and mouth wash,
deodorants and spot creams.
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Literature Review
1.4.6 How Fear Appeal Works
Advertising messages that use fear appeals aim to stimulate anxiety or tension among
an audience and are often referred to as “shock and scare tactics”, Witte (1994). Many
marketers rely on appeals to stimulate interest in their products and services. In their
article, LaTour and Zahra (1989) provide three steps to creating this interest using fear
appeals.
Firstly, a fearfully situation is created causing the respondent to feel at risk,
defenceless and vulnerable. Secondly, this fearful situation should be serious enough
to warrant the attention of the respondents. Finally, a solution should be provided for
the respondent to limit the fear of the threat.
1.4.7 Fear Appeal Models
There are many different models that are used to describe the effectiveness of a.fear
appeal threat. However, the most influential models are ‘The Parallel Response Model’
by Leventhal (1971) and Rogers (1975) ‘Protection Motivation Theory’.
1.4.8 The Parallel Process Model
This model was developed by Howard Leventhal and focuses more on cognitive
processes as opposed to emotional processes, Witte (1992). Leventhal’s model
suggests that “a cognitive response, the belief that harm is likely to occur, is evoked in
addition to the emotional response”, Baltra, Myers, Aaker (1996). Therefore, in the
attempt to try and predict the reaction of the audience both responses need to be
considered. The response that advertisers are seeking is to have the audience conform
to the communication and change their attitudes or behaviours, Baltra, Myers and
Aaker (1996).
Leventhal argued that the cognitive response is responsible for accepting the fear
appeals and the emotional response is responsible for the rejection of fear appeals,
Baltra, Myers and Aaker (1996). He also argued, as cited in Witte (1992) that
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Literature Review
“protective adaptive behaviour stem from attempts to control the threat and not to
control the fear”. Therefore, he concluded that if people thought about strategies to
avert the threat, then they were engaging in a threat control process. In contrast if
people focused on trying to control their fear, they were engaging in fear control
process, Witte (1992). Conversely, the audience may avoid the advertisement and
engage in defence processes and ignore the ad, Witte (1992).
1.4.9 Protection Motivation Theory
According to this theory developed by Rogers an advertisement engaging in fear
appeal will have four processes that will influence how an individual will respond to a
threat. These are the severity of the threat, the probability that the threat is likely to
occur, the purposed behavioural changes or actions which will remove the threat, “the
coping response”, and the capability of the audience to carry out the purpose behaviour
change, Loudon and Della Bitta (1993:469).
The individual’s evaluation of these factors will lead to protection motivation .
behaviours. This theory designs messages to motivate individuals to respond to a
threatening situation, Loudon and Della Bitta (1993). Maximum protection motivation
occurs when each of these variable are at high levels, Witte (1994).
y
1.4.10 Segmentation
Market segmentation is one of the key concepts of marketing. Burnett and Oliver
(1979) suggest that ‘‘the application of market segmentation to the persuasive effects o f
fear may be a reasonable strategy”. Further support to the segmentation strategy is that
pervious research on fear appeals included three of the basic marketing segmentation
approaches which are personality, usage, and socio-economic segmentation, Burnett
and Oliver (1979). “Segmentation variables when properly applied would profitably
divide a market into homogeneous measurable segments that are accessible to
promotional efforts”, Frank and Rao (1971), as cited in Burnett and Oliver (1979).
However, it is important to note that “ ...the same fear appeal may produce different
perceptions on different people”, Witte (1994).
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This is particularly true to say in regards to personality variables. Self-esteem has
received a lot o f attention in fear research. Niles (1964), as cited in Burnett and Oliver
(1979) discovered that the higher the level of fear intensity among medium to high
self-esteemed subjects the stronger their coping responses were to the threat but among
lower self-esteem subjects, their coping responses diminished.
Low self-esteem subjects whom are more susceptible to angst or those that feel
vulnerable are more likely to respond to a fear appeal message positively, in order to
avoid the threat, Burnett and Oliver (1979).
Socio-economic variables have also been used in the segmentation process. A variety
of different factors are included in this wide variable, which include, sex, age, and
education, Higbee (1969) as cited in Burnett and Oliver (1979). According to Quinn,
Meenaghan and Brannick (1992) females are more likely to response positively to a
fear appeal advertisements than males. This proposal came about as they believe that
females are more emotionally responsive than males. Younger people rather than older
people and less educated rather than higher educated people are found to accept and
respond better to fear appeal messages, Quinn, Meenaghan and Brannick (1992),
Burnett and Oliver (1979).
1.4.11 Factors to Consider when using Fear Appeals
In addition to the regular factors involved in any advertising campaign, Meenaghan
and O’Sullivan (1995) out line several considerations that need to be considered before
introducing fear appeals to an advertisement. These include;
*
The Level o f Fear
*
Source Credibility
* Type o f Fear
* Interest value of the Communication
* Relevance
* Ethics
16
Literature Review
The level of Fear: One of the most important considerations, which an advertiser must
consider is the severity o f the threat for the specific situation. This is especially true
when using a fear appeal in a situation which fear has not been used before,
Meenaghan and O’Sullivan (1995). A common consideration is the insurance that the
correct amount of fear, not too much and not too little, is used in the advertisement at
targeting the correct audience, Meenaghan and O’Sullivan (1995). However, Glascoff
(2000) believes that “the stronger the fear appeal, the greater attitude, intention and
behaviour changes”.
Source Credibility: Quinn, Meenaghan and Brannick (1992) point out that an
important factor in determining the success of a fear appeal message is how the
respondents perceive the credibility o f a threat. Meenaghan and O’Sullivan (1995)
believe that “ ...subjects exposed to a strong fear communication, attributed to a high
credible source, would demonstrate the greatest shift toward the position advocated in
the persuasive communication”.
Type of Fear: Advertisers appeal traditionally to consumers’ physical or social fear.
Products such as mouthwash or deodorants describe the consequences of social
disapproval if one fails to use them, Meenaghan and O’ Sullivan (1995). Contrary to
social threat, a physical threat appeals to the physical consequences of doing or*not
doing an action, for example not wearing a seatbelt. Powell and Miller (1967) as cited
in Meenaghan and O ’ Sullivan (1995) “found that social disapproval was substantially
more effective in changing attitudes than was social approval”.
Interest Value o f Communication: In a study carried out by Miniard, Lord, Bhatta,
Dickson and Unnava (1991), as cited in Zinn and Manfredo (2000) they accepted that
fear appeals facilitated persuasion when subjects believed that the message content
was relevant to them but failed when the subjects believed it to be irrelevant.
Communicators may not succeed in influencing the audience if the message lacks
sufficient interest, Meenaghan and O’ Sullivan (1995).
Relevance: Bennett (1996) suggests that the advertisement must be relevant to the
target audience. It has been suggested by Leventhal and Watts (1966), as cited in
17
Literature Review
Meenaghan and O’Sullivan (1995) that the higher the relevance of a presented threat to
a target audience is, the greater the fear is experienced.
Ethics: A persistent ethical concern is the level of fear used in communication
messages. However, Ray and Wilkie (1970), as cited in Meenaghan and O’Sullivan
(1995) concluded that the level of fear that is effective in a successful advertisement is
not high enough to be legally unethical. However, some fear appeal advertisements can
expose people to unpleasant images and therefore can be viewed as an unethical. One
of the major risks/disadvantages of any medium of advertising, but especially
television, is that although it may reach a huge audience it may not reach the intended
audience. Therefore, it is important to consider the outside audience of your target
audience and the “subsequent possible negative social consequences” with reference to
fear appeals, Snipes, Latour and Bliss (1999).
1.5 Conclusion
This chapter has addressed the emotional content of advertising messages, particularly
a fear content, in order to gain an understanding into how fear appeals function.
Advertising in general was explained and changes it attitudes and behaviours was also
examined, in order to gain an insight into the persuasive role of marketers.
The literature reviewed in this chapter is structural evidence on which the objectives
and analysis o f this research study will be based on. The following chapter on the Irish
advertising industry is address so that the persuasive message contents can be put into
context.
18
Literature Review
References
Agres, J.S., Edell. JA ., Dubitsky, T.M., (1990) Emotion in Advertising: Theoretical
and Practical Explorations, Quorum Books, NY
Anderson, A.R., (1995) Marketing Social Change: Changing Behaviour to Promote
Health Social Development and the Environment, Jossey- Bass Publications, USA
Assel, H., (1998) Consumer Behaviour and Marketing Action, 6th Ed, South Western
College Publishing
Batra, R., Myers, J.G., & Aaker, D A ., (1996) Advertising Management, 5th Edition,
New Jersey, Prentice Hall
Bennett, R., (1996) “Effects o f Horrific Fear Appeals on Public Attitudes Towards
AIDS”, International Journal o f Advertising, Vol. 15, pp. 183-202
Burnett, J. J., Oliver, R. L., (1979) “Fear Appeal Effects in the Field: A Segmentation
Approach, Journal o f Marketing Research, Vol. XVI, May, pp. 181-190
r
,s;
•s-
*1
Clark, E., M., Brock, T., C., Stewart, D., W., (1994) Attention, Attitude and Effect in
Response to Advertising, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers
Della Bitta, A., Loudon, D., L., (1993) Consumer Behaviour, 4th Ed, Me Graw-Hill Inc
Domegan, C., Fleming, D., (2003) Marketing Research In Ireland Theory and Practice,
2nd Ed, Gill and Macmillan Ltd
Glascoff, D.W., (2000) “Fear Appeals, Quality Perceptions and 'E-health’ Marketing”,
Marketing Health Services, Vol. 20, Issue 4, pp. 35-37
Gore, P., Madhaven, S., Curry, D., McClurg, G., (1998) “Persuasive Messages”
Marketing Health Services, Chicago, Vol. 18, issue 4
19
Literature Review
Gore, P., Madhaven, S., Huang, M.H.,
(1998), “Exploring a new typology of
advertising appeals: Basic versus social, emotional advertising in a global setting”.
International Journal o f Advertising, Vol. 17
Hart, N., (1995) The Practice of Advertising, 4th Ed, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd,
Oxford
Huang, M.H.,
(1998), “Exploring a New Typology of Advertising Appeals: Basic
Versus Social, Emotional Advertising in a Global Setting”, International Journal o f
Advertising, Vol. 17
Hyman, M.R., Tansey, R.T., (1990) “The Ethics of Psychoactive Ads”, Journal o f
Ethics
j
Jobber, D., (2001) Principles and Practice of Marketing, 3rd Ed, Me Graw-hill
Publishing Company
Kolter, P., (2003) Marketing Management, 11th Ed International, Prentice Hall
Kolter, P., Armstrong, G., Saunders, J., Wong, V., (2002) Principles of Advertising, 3rd
Ed, Prentice Hall
LaTour, M.S., Rotfeld, H.J., (1997) “There are threats and (maybe) Fear-Caused
Arousal: Theory and Confusions of Appeals to Fear and Fear Arousal Itself’, Journal
o f Advertising, Vol. XXVI, autumn
Latour, M.S., Snipes, R.L., (1996) “Don’t be afraid to use Fear Appeals: An
experimental study”, Journal o f Advertising Research, Vol. 36, pp. 59-68
LaTour, M.S., Zahra, S. A., (1989) “Fear Appeals as Advertising Strategy, Should
They be Used”, Journal o f Consumer Marketing, Vol. 6, No.2, pp. 61-70
Loudon, D. L., Della Bitta, A. J. (1993) Consumer Behaviour, 4th Ed, Me Graw-Hill
Inc
20
Literature Review
Mattila, A.S., (1999) “Do emotional Appeals Work for services?”, International
Journal o f Service Industry Management, Vol. 10. No.3
Meenaghan, T., O’Sullivan, P., (1995) Marketing Communications in Ireland, Oak
Tree Press, Dublin
Milner, D., (1995) Success in Advertising and Promotion, Publishers John Murray,
London, p. 54
Mitchell, A. A., (1993) Advertising Exposure, Memory and Choice, Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates Publisher, New Jersey
Mowen, J. C., (1995) Consumer Behaviour, 4th Ed, Prentice Hall International, New
Jersey
Quinn, V., Meenaghan, T., Brannick, T., (1992) “Fear Appeals: Segmentation is the
Way to go”, International Journal o f Advertisings Vol. 11, pp.355-366
Rogan, D., (2000) Marketing: An Introduction for Irish Students, Gill and Macmillan,
Dublin
Schoenbachler, D. D., Whittier, T.E., (1996) “Adolescent processing of Social and
Physical Threat Communications”, Journal o f Advertising, Vol.25, No. 4, pp.37-54
Snipes, R.L., Latour, M., Bliss, S.J., (1999) “A model of the effects of self efficacy on
the perceived ethically and performance of fear appeals in advertising”, Journal o f
Business Ethics, Vol. 19, pp 273-285
Solomon, M., R., (1999) Consumer Behaviour, 4th Ed, Prentice Hall International,
New Jersey
21
Literature Review
Wells, Burnett, Moriarty (2003) Advertising, Principles and Practice, 6th Edition,
Prentice Hall International 6th edition, 2003
Witte, K., (1992) “ Putting the Fear Back into Fear Appeals: The Extended Parallel
Process Model”, Communication Monographs, December, Vol. 59, pp. 329-349
Witte, K., (1994) “Fear Control and Danger Control: A Test of the extended Parallel
process Model”, Communication Monographs, Vol. 61, pp. 113-134
Witte, K., Allen, M., (2000) “A Meta-Analysis of fear Appeals: Implications for
Effective Public Health Campaigns”, Marketing Health Services, Vol. 20, issue 4,
pp.35-37
Zeitlin, D.M., Westwood, R.A., (1986), “Measuring Emotional Response” Journal o f
Advertising Research, October/November.
Zinn, H., C., Manfredo, M., J., (2000) “An Experimental Test of Rational and
Emotional Appeals about a Recreational Issue”, Leisure Science, July, Vol. 22, issue 3,
pp. 183-195
Electronic Sources
http://www.ciadvertising.org/studies/student/98_fall/theory/weirtz/Emotion.htm
http://www.tristate.edu/faculty/herbig/imc09.htm
22
Chapter Two
Advertising Industry In Ireland
1
National
College0/"
Ireland
Advertising Industry in Ireland
2.0 Introduction
The development o f the Irish media has been tied up with the emergence of the nation
state and its identity. The media has played a major part in the modernisation of Irish
society and culture, specifically the move from “ ...a relatively homogenous closed
Catholic culture” to “ .. an open, pluralist culture” of today, Tovey and Share (2000).
The first part o f this chapter examines the complexity o f the Irish media from an
advertising point of view. The second part uncovers the television industry in Ireland
as it is through this source, which the author shall test a set of advertisements that are
driven by fear, using a medium that is national. The third part exposes the alcohol and
drink driving behaviour in Ireland today.
2.1 Advertising Industry in Ireland
In the last decade, media communications in Ireland have been under severe strain,
which has lend to a change in marketers advertising priorities. Companies are now
more concerned with the planning and buying of their media campaigns as it has been
recognised in Ireland that expenditure on such campaigns is often the single biggest
financial investment they make, Meenaghan and O’ Sullivan (1995).
Media rates have escalated rapidly in recent years, as media supply cannot meet
advertisers’ demands. Due to Irelands increased wealth, more goods and services are
being advertised to the public, which is driving up the cost, iapi.ie (2004). Advertisers
have found it extremely difficult to maintain traditional exposure levels compared to
competitors.
In the last decade, the Irish media has expanded considerably. However, it has
experienced a measurable decline in audience levels across all major sectors. The print
sector remains under severe strain from the British press and technology advances have
allowed the audience to control the television sector with the use of remote controls
and DVD recorders, Meenaghan and O’ Sullivan (1995). The republic o f Ireland has its
own unique marketing conditions, which shape the manner in which Irish advertising
campaigns are planned and executed.
24
Advertising Industry in Ireland
2.2.1 The Regulation of Advertising in Ireland
EU directives, government codes of practice and the Advertising Standards Authority
for Ireland, ASAI, regulate the advertising industry in Ireland. The ASAI is an
independent self-regulated body, which exists to
“Promote and enforce throughout Ireland the highest standards of
advertising in all media o f communication so as to ensure, in co-operation
with all concerned, that no advertising contravenes or offends against these
standards having regard inter-alia to the code of advertising standards in
Ireland”, asai.ie (2004).
The ASAI is financed entirely by the advertising industry of Ireland. The code deals
with ensuring that all advertisements and promotions are “legal, decent, honest and
truthful”, asai.ie (2004). The rules are contained in the Code of Advertising Standards
and the Code o f Sales Promotion Practice, which are drawn up by the ASAI after
consultation with Government Departments and consumer representatives, asai.ie
(2004).
As detailed in the code, the fundamentally quality o f good advertising is that:
•
Advertisements should be legal, decent, honest and truthful.
•
Advertisements should be adapted to the principles of fair competition.
•
Advertisements should be responsibly produced for the consumer and for
society.
Source: aeforum.org
2.2.2 Fear Appeals in Irish Advertising
Gillette was the first brand to introduce fear appeals in to advertising. Fear appeals in
the Irish advertising industry have been heavily regulated but they are still used
extensively throughout. Rule 2.26 in the Advertising Standards Authority of Ireland
restricts the use o f fear appeals in Ireland. The rule states:
25
Advertising Industry in Ireland
An advertisement should not cause fear or distress without good reason
such as the encouragement of prudent behaviour or the discouragement
of dangerous or ill-advised actions. In such cases the fear aroused
should not be disproportionate to the risk.
Asai.ie (2004)
2.2.3. Legislation Governing Alcohol Advertising in Ireland
The ASAI, among other things, outlines codes for advertising that relate specifically to
that of alcoholic drinks. These are contained in Section 6 of the code and state that:
•
Alcohol advertisements should not be targeted at minors
•
All persons appearing in alcohol advertisements should be over 25 years
•
Alcohol advertisements should not encourage young people to drink nor
contain material that would do so
(aeforum, 2004)
See Appendix C, for section 6 of code in full
2.2.4 Advertising Expenditure in Ireland
According to the BASE report for January-September 2003, the Irish Government
spent approximately €23 million on advertisements, while Diageo followed in second
place having spent €13 million during the same period.
26
Advertising Industry in Ireland
Figure : 2.1 Top 10 Advertisers Jan-Sept 2003 € millions
25
20
15
10
<n
o
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o> oa. 8.
® ”o SI
° S = o E
Q
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o£ Q
" 5 2 , ^ 0 “
r
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o
(/>
LU
T3
0- O
^ >°
Source: 1AP1, base.ie
Base advertising expenditure figures are calculated at rate card costs rather than actual
expenditure. These figures do not include advertising on UK media sources, i.e. UTV,
which can also be used to target Irish audiences.
The top ten suppliers of those advertisements were reported by BASE in the same
report also.
Figure: 2.2 Top 10 Suppliers Jan-Sept 2003 € millions
100
c
80
60
f f
40
t
**
o £
HI
\± Ql K
©
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li
V)
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TV 3
20
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o
on £
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■o 0
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3 1 -o § s 2
o
LU
3 CL
X
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H
0£
Source: 1AP1, base.ie
27
Advertising Industry in Ireland
2.2The Irish Television Industry
TV has the great advantage of being able to communicate moving colour pictures and
sound together - which is pretty much the closest that advertising media can get to a
real salesman at your front door”, Berry (1998).
A new era in Irish broadcasting began at 7pm on New Years Eve 1961, as Telefis
Eireann (State-sponsored body) commenced transmission, after nearly five years of
debates and controversy over the role that television should play in Irish society, Me
Loone and Mac Mahon (1984). Previous to this however, it was possible for those
living on the East coast to pick up British TV transmitting signals, Tovey and Share
(2000). RTE was established under the Broadcasting Act I960, which placed the
responsibility o f radio and television broadcasting in the hands o f the Irish nation. The
first colour transmission from RTE 1 was on St Patrick’s Day 1971.
In the years that followed this, the national station had an immeasurable impact and
influence, on virtually every aspect of Irish lives.
Television played an important part in developing and challenging traditional cultural
forms within Ireland. “It was also instrumental in bringing about the gradual decline in
the power and authority of the Catholic Church”, Tovey and Perry (2000). It became a
sign of development and modernisation for Ireland.
The new service quickly became established and remains today, an instrument of
education as well as a source of information and entertainment. Since 1961, RTE 1 has
survived and thrived in an increasingly competitive environment. During the 80’s, the
Irish government had to overcome an increasing problem, that 66% of Irish homes
were receiving quality signals from Britain, resulting in a decline of advertising
revenue, Me Loone and Mac Mahon, (1984).
Irelands second channel RTE 2, now Network 2, began transmission in 1978. Its
propose was to extend the choice of programming, countrywide, from just RTE 1.
TnaG was launched in 1994and re-branded TG4 in 1996. Its function is to present the
Irish people with a TV station in the native Irish language. TV3 is Irelands first
28
Advertising Industry in Ireland
independent television station and was launched in direct competition with RTE in
1998. TV3 has been judged as the most successful television network launched in
Europe in the last ten years, TV3.ie (2004)
2.2 Competition in the Industry
Over the past decade, the television industry has been transformed significantly in
Ireland. Cable and satellite homes have increased due to digital channels. Sky digital
was launched in 2000 and was the first digital service in Ireland offering a multitude of
channels. (NTL then launched “Go Digital” in 2001.) Nevertheless, even with a rapid
popularity growth for digital and TV3, RTE still remains the most viewed channel in
the Republic of Ireland, with a percentage increase of adult viewing from 29.1% in
2002, to 33.2% in 2003, medialive.ie (2003). TV3 has a yearly increase of viewers and
in 2003 attracted 13.2% of adult viewing, medialive.ie (2003).
In 2003,Ulster Television was received by 9.1% of Irish homes, medialive.ie (2003).
For this reason, advertisers in the Republic use UTV to reach their target audience in
the south. Advertising is not available however on BBC1, 2 or Channel 4. In recent
years there has been a major increase in the commercial minutes available on
television to Irish advertisers. TV3, Skyl, and Sky News carry 9 minutes per hour.
RTE and Network 2 carry 6 minutes. A report published by Fair brother Media
Company in March 2001 stated that:
TV3 sold 96% of their commercial airtime in 2000
RTE sold 81% and
NT2 sold 69% o f their commercial airtime.
This clearly highlights that RTE is under increased pressure from its rival station,
TV3, with regards to competition for advertising. TV3 pays an annual rental to RTE
for the use o f its transmission system.
29
Advertising Industry in Ireland
Audience levels on television have also been under pressure as the viewing public
become less passive and tolerant of the traditional programming fare. This is borne out
by the increasing number of media studies that suggest that the television set is playing
a less intrusive part in peoples lives, Meenaghan and O’ Sullivan (1995).
A major reality affecting the television industry is the abundance of technology in the
sector. For many years, Irish television and video ownership levels were much lower
than neighbouring countries. However, the Central Statistics Office in Ireland, for
1999/2000, reported that almost 99% of households had a television. A substantial
increase from 28% to 49% was recorded in the percentage of households with two or
more TV sets and 85% had video recorders. It was also noted by the CSO, that 90% of
Irish homes now have a remote control for their televisions, cso.ie (2004)
In television, in addition to basic prime time and afternoon segments, there is now
breakfast time, morning time and nighttime segments which have developed in line
with the extension o f broad casting hours. Prices vary for the same television spot or
press space as audiences viewing, reading and listening habits fluctuate from one day
to the next.
2.3 The Alcohol Industry in Ireland
The role o f alcohol in Irish society has come under increased scrutiny recently.
“During the last decade, the consumption of alcohol has risen dramatically in Ireland
with Irish adults currently among the highest consumers in Europe, at 14.2 litres per
adult”, STFA.ie (2002). Society has paved the way for an increase in youth and female
drinking habits, which are associated with this increase in alcohol consumption.
Several studies carried out have revealed that a high level of drinking in Ireland is
linked with “alcohol-related mortality”, Hope and Ramstedt (2002) e.g., liver failure,
accidents and murder.
30
Advertising Industry in Ireland
The study carried out by Hope and Ramstedt (2002) in Ireland, uncovered evidence
that highlights that alcohol consumption diminishes with age. It also exposed the fact
that, the highest consumption was to be found among those aged between 18-29 years.
Figure 2.3 Alcohol Consumption in Litres of Pure Alcohol
Beer
Cider/Perry
Spirits
RTDs
Wine
Total
2003
23 , 232,005
3 , 115,099
7 , 302,448
524,030
7 , 277,435
41,451,018
2002
23 , 818,149
3 , 080,640
9 , 196,656
594,599
6 , 741,550
43,431,594
2001
23 , 935,340
3 , 471,853
8 , 918,559
412,451
5 , 564,707
42,302,911
2000
23 , 840,483
3 , 131,687
8 ,454,470
523,762
5 , 316,544
41,266,947
1999
24 , 023,928
2 ,703,062
7 ,847,469
179,013
4 ,669,241
39,422,713
1998
23 , 581,051
2 ,316,273
6 ,848,124
150,860
4 , 217,152
37,113,459
(meas.ie, 2004)
2.3.1 Drinking Patterns in Ireland
Further investigations by Hope and Ramstedt (2002) uncovered that a minority of
people in Ireland drink on a daily bases, only 1.6% of males and 0.2% of females.
The following graph represents the drinking patterns in percentages among males and
females in Ireland, aged between 18-64 years.
Figure 2.4 Drinking patterns among males and females in Ireland, aged between
18-64 years. (Hope and Ramstedt, 2002)
Drinking
Drink at Binge drink
Mean
everyday % least once
at least
drinking
a week %
once a
occasions
week
past 12
months
Mean
Binge
drinking
occasions
past 12
months
Advertising Industry in Ireland
“The tendency to drink a lot of alcohol on one occasion, referred to as binge drinking,
is strikingly common in Ireland”, Hope and Ramstedt (2002). Their study also
reported an overall finding that unfavourable consequences linked with heavy drinking
occasions were most common in Ireland, e.g. fights, accidents and regrettable
behaviour. In regard to those surveyed by Hope and Ramstedt (2002) 6.3% of males
and 2.4% o f females had the experience of having been in an accident. 11.5% of males
also admitted to have got into a fights.
However, in recent weeks and with the contribution of the newly applied no smoking
ban in the work place, it has been recorded that there is a 30% decrease in pub alcohol
sales. This is off set by the 8 % increase in off licence sales, RTE News (2004).
2.4 Drink Driving in Ireland
According to the Garda Siochana Annual Report 2002, 13,441 arrests were made in
2002 for drink driving offences. The graph below supplied by the Gardai,
clearly shows a yearly increase in the enforcement of the drink driving legislation.
Figure 2.5
Enforcement Of Drunk Driving Legislation 1995 - 2002
14000
12841
11411
12000
10000
8000
6000 - 4984—
4000
2000
0
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
(Garda Siochana Annual Report 2002)
32
Advertising Industry in Ireland
In the following graph it specifies the gender of those persons convicted of drink
driving offences for the same year. Drink driving is predominantly a male problem.
Men cause nine out of ten alcohol related road crashes and almost two thirds of these
are caused by the 17-34 age bracket, www.nsc.ie (2004).
Figure. 2.5
Gender Of Persons Convicted Of Drink
Driving Offences
10%
□ Male
□ Female
90%
(Garda Siochana Annual Report 2002)
2.4.1The National Safety Council
The National Safety Council promotes Road Safety and Fire Safety in Ireland. It was
established in 1987. The Council is funded by grants from the Department of
Transport, fund support from the Irish Insurance Federation and sponsorships,
penalty points, ie (2004). The Council are active in educational programmes, media
campaigns and PR activities. With the aid of their promotional activities, the NSC try
to influence public attitude and behaviour in relation to Road and Fire Safety issues,
www.penaltypoints.ie (2004).
2,4.2 Shame Advertisement
This commercial highlights the possible consequences of drink driving. The
advertisement graphically depicts the shame involved in drink driving as a young
innocent boy is killed as a result of one mans negligence. The marketing strategy was
33
Advertising Industry in Ireland
to move drink driving from a position of social stigma to one of personal ‘SHAME’.
The NSC claim that SHAME as a concept and emotion spans every aspect of drink
driving.
2.5 Conclusion
This chapter has examined the Irish advertising industry in Ireland in order to gain a
practical background knowledge into how the industry is formed. The author has also
addressed the alcohol industry and the drink driving behaviour in Ireland, as its from
these two segments that the need for fear appeal advertisements has arisen, in relation
to road safety.
In the following chapter, the research methodology is explained, the research question
formed and the objective of this research study listed.
34
Advertising Industry in Ireland
References
Berry, M., (1998) The New Integrated Direct Marketing, Gower Publishing Ltd
Meenaghan, T., O’ Sullivan, P., (1995) Marketing Communications in Ireland, Oak
Tree Press, Dublin
Tovey, H., and Share, P., (2000) A Sociology o f Ireland, Gil) Sc Macmillan Ltd
RTE News (2004), April 28.04.04
Electronic Sources
http ://www. iapi.com/research/mediatrends. htm
Http ://www. aeforum. org/european/Ireland.html
http ://www. meas. ie/consumption3 html
http://www.mediaIive.ie/general/top.html
http ://www. aeforum. org/european/Ireland. html
http .//penaltypoints. ie/about_nsc. html
http://iapixom/adeffective/cases02/shame.htm
http ://asai.ie/about. htm
http://medialive.ie/television.chshare.html
http://meas.ie/consumptionl .html
35
Chapter Three
Research Methodology
1
National
College®/
Ireland
Research Methodology
3.0 Introduction to Methodology
A research methodology is developed to aid the formulation of research, to identify the
main topics to be investigated and finally to act as a guide to outline how the
researcher can carry out this investigation in the most effective way possible.
The main objective of this ,chapter is to explicitly outline the investigators research
problem, objective and an appropriate methodology that will aid the fulfilment of this
objective.
Malhotra (1999) describes marketing research as “the systematic and objective
identification, collection, analysis, dissemination and the use of information for the
purpose of improving decision making related to the identification and solution of
problems and opportunities in marketing”.
The marketing research process refers to a set of stages that detail a number or
sequence o f tasks a researcher undertakes to gather and report valid and reliable
information to assist with decision-making, Domegan and Fleming (2003).
Each stage has both conceptual dimensions and activities, which the investigator must
consider and requires thorough implementation to ensure that accurate results are
achieved, Malhotra (1999). The following steps, provided by Domegan and Fleming
(2003:20) have common characteristics and are complementary to each other and
serve the purpose of providing a general structure for planning a research project.
Figure 3.6 The Marketing Research Process
Stage 1 Problem Definition
Stage 2 Research Design
Stage 3 Data Collection Methods
Stage 4 Sampling
Research Methodology
Stage 5 Fieldwork
Stage 6 Analysis of Data
Stage 7 Presentation of Results
Source: Domegan and Fleming (2003)
3.1 Research Question and Objectives
Subsequent to a review on the relevant literature of fear appeals in advertisements and
the industry review, the following research question has been established. The research
question therefore is
4To examine fear appeals in advertisements through the use of Irish television media,
with particular reference to the National Safety Council’s “Shame” drink driving
advertisement’. It is important to note that the research question should provide focus
for the study, from which the specific research objective can be formulated.
The researcher has set out one objective, which will serve as guidance in the collection
of the appropriate data.
The following is the research objective, which has been drawn from the research
question.
Objective 1: to explore the recognition of emotion in advertisements with
particular reference to fear appeals and the NSC’s “Shame” drink driving
advertisement.
To gain an understanding in to peoples recognition and experiences of fear appeals in
advertising that promote safer driving behaviour specifically regarding the National
Safety Councils “Shame” drink driving advertisement.
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Research Methodology
3.2 Nature of the Research
The research design is an overall blueprint, guideline, plan of action, or framework for
the rest of the research process, which will facilitate later decisions that need to be
made, Domegan and Fleming (2003).
3.2.1 Exploratory Research
The exact purpose of this research is to explore the recognition of fear appeals in the
National Safety Council’s advertisements. Therefore, this research could be described
as being exploratory in nature. Exploratory research aims to generate a deeper
understanding of the phenomenon, Silverman (2000)
Domegan and Fleming (2003:23) define exploratory research as “research that aims to
explore and discover issues about the problem at hand” and which is characterised by
research methods that are highly flexible, unstructured and qualitative. It is important
to note that Domegan and Fleming (2003:23) point out the “ ...need by exploratory
research to explore and discover, leaves it as response driven, i.e. it is the respondents
responses that matter to the investigator and not the questions posed by the
researcher”.
3.3 Research Design
3.3.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Research
There are two broad types of research methods available to the researcher, qualitative
and quantitative research. In general, qualitative research tends to be exploratory while
quantitative research tends to be descriptive. From an academic perspective of the
author, the most important factor is determining the choice of methodology to use.
It is necessary before undertaking the selection of either of these techniques that the
author identifies which type o f research will provide essential and significant data,
relevant to the aim of the purposed study. According to Brannick and Roche (1997:2)
the most simplistic definition of both qualitative and quantitative research is that
“...quantitative researchers deal with numbers while qualitative researchers deal with
experience and meaning that can only be described in words and not numbers.”
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Research Methodology
Malhotra (1999) also expresses the same view that “ ...quantitative research seeks to
quantify the data and, typically applies some form of statistical analysis”. Malhotra
(1999) continues by defining qualitative research as “ ...an unstructured, exploratory
research
methodology
based on
small
samples
that provide
insights
and
understandings o f the problem setting”.
The author has chosen to carry out the research using a qualitative data collection
procedure. The logic for this is that the nature of the research problem merits the need
to establish and comprehend people’s behaviour and reactions towards the style of fear
appeal advertising. The data required should provide insights into people’s attitudes
and behaviour regarding the use of fear appeals in the “Shame” drink driving
advertisement.
Also, a qualitative approach can give elaborate details of the research question that
would be difficult to convey with quantitative methods.
It is important to note that “ ...most research methods can be used in either qualitative
or quantitative studies”, Silverman (2000:89). Both research methods require the need
to collect data and answer questions. However, the difference between the two
develops from the procedure in which the findings are interpreted. As noted earlier,
quantitative methods involve coding the worded answers into a numerical form, for
analysis while qualitative methods involve the transcription of the data. According to
Maykut and More house (1999:14),
The main difference between the two approaches is not the counting or lack o f
counting of the occurrence of a particular word or behaviour, but rather the
meaning given to the words, behaviours or documents as interpreted through
quantitative analysis or statistical analysis as opposed to patterns of meaning
which emerge from the data and are often presented in the participants own
words.
It is important to note that “ ...the methods used by qualitative researchers exemplify a
common belief that they can provide a deeper understanding of social phenomena than
would be obtained from purely quantitative data” Silverman (2000:89). By its nature,
qualitative research examines a small number of respondents. However, the
information uncovered will be greater than would be possible using quantitative
research.
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Research Methodology
3.3.2 Qualitative Research
Silverman (2000) believes that qualitative research has a profound understanding of
social phenomena, is strong on long descriptive narratives than on statistical tables and
involves a variety of different approaches.
The area of current study naturally lends itself more towards qualitative types of
research, as it attempts to reveal the nature of individuals’ experiences with a
phenomenon.
Qualitative research will therefore provide the author with a deeper human
understanding to the reactions of fear appeal advertisements and will reveal new and
fresh information on what is already know.
3.3.3 Evaluation of Qualitative Research
Reliability and Validity are the key factors that a researcher must account for when
conducting any type of research, Silverman (2000). The case against reliability and
validity in qualitative research, arise from the level of the researchers experience, how
the events are categorised and what represents a credible truth, Silverman (2000).
It has been criticised that qualitative research is very subjective and the concern
remains that any given result may have been different with the use of a different
moderator or different respondents, Sykes (1999).
3.4 Chosen Form of Data Collection
The decision as to what method of data collection to use must now be established. It is
one of the most critical points of the research process. It is vital that the decided
process will obtain and achieve the widest collection of relevant data required for the
study and it must try to provide conclusive answers. The data should be valid, reliable
and easily obtainable.
There are two main types of data sources. These are primary data and secondary data.
Primary data is information that is gathered specifically for a research project. The
most familiar primary research methods are focus groups and interviews.
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Research Methodology
Figure 3.7
A classification of Qualitative Research Procedures
Source: Malhotra and Birks (2000)
Secondary data is information that has been collected for reasons other than the
specific research project at hand. It provides clues and direction for the design of
primary research. The focus group has been chosen over the individual interview as
the group dynamic is deemed an important contributory factor in learning and
exploring issues surrounding fear-appeal advertisements. Focus groups distinguish
themselves from interviews due to the explicit use of group interaction.
3.4.1 Secondary Data
The author had access to the Norma Smurfit Library in the National College of Ireland
and also to the D.I.T Aungier Street library. Facilities included databases, academic
books, thesis, dissertations, on-line journals, the Internet, newspapers, RTE News
broadcasts and archival records. The use of DIT’s Business Source Premier database
proved extremely useful as a means of secondary data collection.
The author also made contact with the staff of the National Safety Council, NSC and
followed this up by visiting their head office in Ranelagh, Dublin. The author had the
opportunity to develop a professional contact within the NSC’s, Ms Caroline Spillane,
which enabled relevant issues to be discussed from time to time. From this close
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Research Methodology
contact, the NSC supplied a video recording of 6 of their road safety campaigns. The
author subsequently had the opportunity to show this video to the participants of the
focus group, which contained the following advertising campaigns: ‘Thum p” (seatbelt
ad) “Shame” (drink driving Ad), “Damage” (speeding ad), “Texting” (mobile phone
texting ad) and “Home” (pedestrian safety ad). The NSC has also expressed a wish to
review the findings of this dissertation.
3.4.2 Primary Research
The focus group has been chosen by the author as the primary research tool used in the
research process. The reasoning behind using a focus group, is to get a deeper
understanding behind the recognition and attitudes of emotional appeals, in
particularly fear appeals, amongst young people aged eighteen to twenty four years
old. The eighteen to twenty four age group has been selected as the focus of this
dissertation, as the author has chosen to examine a non-random convenience sample.
Recently, the focus group method has enjoyed exceptional popularity. Focus groups
are group discussions and are ideal for exploring certain opinions, attitudes, concerns
and issues. They provide an insight into group dynamics while still conserving
personal judgments. Participation in a group tends to increase individuals knowledge
and ‘...compensate for shortfalls and inexperience’, Denise Threlfall (1999:102)
The dynamics of the group allow for a true discussion to arise without forcing results
and permits participants to express their individual reasoning in establishing the why
behind the what.
In an attempt to provide a definition, Morgan (1990) as cited in
Denise Threlfall (1999: 102) defines focus groups as being ‘. . . a qualitative technique
allowing for the explicit use of group interaction to produce data and insights that
would be less accessible without the interaction found in a group-. In short,,allowing
for the assembly of individuals to interact and discuss a certain topic, focus groups can
provide unyielding information and a collection of ideas, opinions and attitudes.
According to Barbour and Kitzinger (1999) in addition to focus groups and group
interviews, there are a variety of different forms that a group discussion can comprise
o f These entail brainstorming sessions, nominal sessions (specific exercises to
43
Research Methodology
establish participants priorities), Delphi Groups (panel of experts responding to
research results), and consensus panels (“designed to develop agreed professional
principles or procedures”), Barbour and Kitzinger (1999:4).
Delphi groups and consensus panels differ from the focus group discussions, as they
are required to output an agreed response from participants rather than an observation
of attitudes or opinions, Barbour and Kitzinger (1999).
Focus groups are an extension of individual interviewing, are an appropriate method
for examining knowledge, ideas, opinions and attitudes and allow the respondents to
express themselves freely, Denise Threlfall (1999).
3.4.3 Evaluation of Focus Groups
Brannick and Roche, (1997) highlight many advantages and disadvantages of using
focus groups.
Advantages
* Group interaction may stimulate new ideas
*
Respondents ideas are likely to be challenged by others
* It is possible to gather a large amount of information covering a small number
of topics in a short period of time.
*
Relatively low in cost
*
Interviewer can conduct several sessions on one topic and not encounter
fatigue or boredom
However, no research method is better than another and each have their limitations.
Brannick and Roche (1997) continue with their evaluation of focus groups by
highlighting the disadvantages of using this method of research.
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Research Methodology
Disadvantages
♦ Responses in a group may be influenced or formed by opinions of other
group members
♦ Respondents compete with each other for time to talk
♦ If the subject matter is sensitive respondents may be hesitant to talk
freely in the presence of others
♦ It is difficult to recruit 8-10 respondents and gather them together in the
same place at the same time.
With regards to the necessary primary information which the researcher is seeking to
obtain, in order to achieve the objective of this dissertation and having deliberated
over the relevant literature review, the author proposes that that focus group is the
most suitable method of obtaining the information required, as it allows for the free
flow of conversation to evolve.
3.4.3 Pre Data Detection Selection
A pre data detection was carried out by the researcher to highlight how the information
would be obtained in the chosen research method, in this case the focus group. The
pre testing should never be left out of any research project as it is undeinable how
important and useful it can be to the research puropose.
A pre data test can be used to expose problems with questions and potential
misinterpretations between the researcher and the respondents. It can also be useful in
determining time management as it can approximately discloses the lenght of time
required by all participants. In short, pre testing allows problems to be identified at a
time when it is possible to rectify them (Brannick & Roche, 1997).
(
The author conducted one pre data detection test on one participant, who was both a
fully licenced driver and an moderator consumer of alcohol. The the NSC’s video
recordings were played and the questions from the theme sheet were asked. An
Research Methodology
analysis was carried out on the pre testing procedure inorder to identify and develop
themes and issues that could be explored in the main focus group.
One insight that was gained from the pre data detection testing, was that the
respondent could not watch the advertisements as they were seen to be too graphic and
distrubing. Another insight showed that the respondent could relate to some of the
advertisements but had previously not watched all of them on television. It was also
revealed that the most recognised and remembered advertisements were that of the
‘Body to Body’ advertisement. The respondent felt that the advertisement ‘Shame’
does not help to encourge people to stop drink and driving.
The pre testing highlighten that the respondent had a good understanding, knowledge
and reievent opinions in relation to the advertisements and the research purpose. It also
noted that the theme sheet was revelant in probing the respondent and therefore was
not altered. The researcher who had no other previous experience in conducting a
focus group was able to learn the choregraphics of how one might be carried out,
eventhough only one participant was involved. From the pre testing it emergent that a
structural approach to the sitting arrangements should be carried out to avoid
members of the group from not taking the discussion seriously.
3.4.4 Facilitators Role in the Focus Group
One discrepancy that has been argued by Barbour and Kitzinger (1999) is that the
researcher must be extremely skilled in preparing and conducting the focus group. The
researchers role is to encourage and develop the interaction between respondents.
Therefore the role of the researcher (interviewer) is vital in the research process. It is
the responsibility o f the researcher to create an atmosphere that is relaxing, will ease
the respondents and encourage them to speak freely.
The researcher should be able to think quickly, encourage all participants to speak,
assist in the closure of incomplete sentences, whilst ensuring that all interesting areas
have been discovered. The researcher should remain in control of the discussion at all
46
Research Methodology
times but allow for the free flow of conversation. It is also vital that the researcher
knows when to contribute to the discussion and when not to.
A vital element in conducting any method of primary research is that the researcher
should have an in depth knowledge in both the literature and industry reviews o f the
chosen topic.
3.4.5 Location of Focus Group
It is important to conduct the focus group in an atmosphere, which will relax the
interviewees andrencourage them to express their opinion. Therefore, with this in mind
and for the convenience of the respondents, the author chose to conduct the focus
group on the premises of the National College of Ireland. This also allowed for ease in
organising the use of a television and video.
3.4.6 Length of Focus Group
As explained by Barbour and Kitzinger, (1999:7) “ ...the appropriate number of focus
groups will depend on the research question, the range of people you wish to include
and of course, time and resource limitations”. Due to a time constraint in conducting
the research and the unavailability of specific demographics, only one focus group
discussion, which was 40 minutes long, is provided for in the research findings.
3.4.7 Materials used in the Focus Group
One video, supplied by the National Safety Council NSC, comprising of five of their
most recent road safety advertisements was used during the focus group. The
advertisements on the video consisted of 4 Body to Body’, ‘Shame’, ‘Texting’, Slow
Down Boys’ and ‘Damage’. The video material was obtained from the NSC’s
Ranelagh office in Dublin.
A theme sheet with relevant issues to be discussed was used through out the focus
group as a means to probe the participants. In essence it is a topic guide where major
themes are identified from the literature review and from the research objectives. It
provided the researcher with a guide on which to base the main topics of discussion.
47
Research Methodology
The author found this to be extremely useful when discussion on one issued was
exhausted and there was a need to introduce an alternative issue. It allowed for the
continuation of the group discussion without an uncomfortable silence to descend. The
actually theme sheet which was employed is reproduced in Appendix A.
3.4.8 Recording the Focus Group
To facilitate in providing a transcript of the focus, the author recorded the focus group
using a Dictaphone. The interviewees were all asked individual for their permission in
the recording o f the focus group, prior to its commencement.
According to Barbour and Kitzinger (1999:15) “ ...tape recording provides far richer
research access to the discussion...”. Recording the focus group, allows the researcher
to freely conduct the discussion and mingle into the group. It also allows -the
interviewer to maintain eye contact and provide full attention, while steering the focus
group in the according direction. It allows for the free movement of speech, as there is . ^ *
no stopping and waiting whilst the interviewer takes notes. The recording allows the
author to accurately interpret the information.
r
However, one limitation of using this method is that part or all of an interview can be
lost through the malfunction of a tape recorder. Fortunately the research was
conducted without the need to change to tape and there where no technical difficulties.
Another disadvantage o f recording the focus group is that the recordings cannot
accurately convey body language and can therefore misinterpret the respondent’s
messages. A way to counteract this is to take notes during the focus group of the
respondent’s physical actions.
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Research Methodology
3.5 The Sampling Process
According to Bryman, 1988 (as cited in Silverman, 2000:102) "... the purpose of
sampling is usually to study a representative subsection of a precisely defined
population in order to make inference about the whole population”. The population to
be interviewed in the focus group is of extreme importance for the outcome of the
research findings. There are a number of factors that must be considered as determined
by Malhotra (1999). These include:
Defining the Population
Determining the Sample Frame
Selecting the Sampling
Techniques
Determining the Sample Size
3.5.1 Defining the Population
Malhotra and Birks (2000) define the target population as the collection of elements or
objects that process the information sought by the researcher and about which
conclusions are to be made.
It is essential in most research projects to represent diverse demographics. The target
population for this research study will be males and females between the ages of
eighteen and twenty-four years, as the author has chosen a non-random convenience
sample due to a lack of resources, time and money. The population mix will comply of
those who hold a full drivers license in contrast with those who do not and those who
drink alcoholic drinks compared to those whom don’t drink.
The targeted population that was interviewed were all associates of the researcher and
of each other. This method was undertaking as it was thought that the flow of
information and the ease at which it could be given would be easier from friends than
from unknown sources.
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Research Methodology
3.5.2 Determining the Sampling Frame
This step involves the description of the means by which respondents were identified.
The focus group respondents were recruited from friends of the researcher.
Respondents were recruited on the bases of age, sex and whether or not they held a full
or provisional drivers licence and whether or not the drink alcohol.
Age
Sex
Drivers
Licence or not
Drink Alcohol
or not
3.5.3 Selecting the Sampling Technique
The third stage of the sampling process is the sampling technique. This can instantly
be divided into probability and non-probability sampling.
According to Malhotra and Birks (2000) probability sampling is a procedure in which
each element of the population has a fixed chance of being selected for the sampling.
Malhotra and Birks continue by defining non-probability sampling as sampling, which
relies on the personal judgement of the researcher rather than on the chance to select
sample elements.
As the research undertaking by the author is qualitative and as non-probability
sampling is used in qualitative research, it is resolved that non-random, non­
probability sampling will facilitate in the research of this dissertation. There are four
types of non-probability sampling. These include convenience, judgemental, quota and
snowballing, Malhotra (1999). The researcher decided to use a convenience sample
due to a lack of time and availability of sources to interview. According to Malhotra
(1999) a convenience sample attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements. In
other words, respondents are selected because they are easy to recruit and are willing
to participate. The researcher also decided to use a non-random sample due to a time
constrict.
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Research Methodology
3.5.4Determining the Sampling Size
The Sample size refers to the number of elements to be used in the study. The author
selected eight respondents to participate in the focus group. It was felt by the author
that enough information could be gathered from the eight as they possessed the
necessary characteristics to be included, that was, they were either drinkers or non
drinkers of alcohol and also they either held a full drivers licence or not.
3.5.5 The Respondents
In order to adhere to the sampling process outlined, the author recruited eight
respondents for the purpose of the research. Due to assurances of confidentiality, the
author has employed pseudo-names to ensure that the information remains
confidential.
Jack
Jack is twenty-two years old and currently working full time. Last year he received his
degree in Business Studies. He is a moderator consumer of alcohol and holds a full
drivers licence for the last four years.
Michael
Michael is twenty-one years old and is currently in his final year of study for his
degree in European Business Studies and Languages. He is an above moderator
consumer o f alcohol and holds a full drivers licence for the last two years.
Sarah
Sarah is twenty-four years old and is currently working full time. She does not drink
alcohol and has neither a provisional nor a full driver’s licence.
Jane
Angela is nineteen years old and is studying for her degree in the National College of
Ireland. She has a full drivers licence and does not drink alcohol.
51
Research Methodology
Donal
Donal is twenty-one years old and is studying for his degree in European Business
Studies and Languages in NCI. He is a moderator consumer of alcohol and has neither
a provisional nor a full driver’s licence.
Ciara
Ciara is twenty-three years old and is studying in NCI for her finals in European
Business Studies and Languages. Ciara has had a full driver’s licence for the last two
and a half years and is a moderate consumer of alcohol.
Judith
Judith is twenty years old and is working full time. She does not have a full drivers
licence and is a moderator consumer of alcohol.
Paul
Paul is twenty-one years old and is currently studying for his final exams in the
National college of Ireland. Paul has neither a provisional nor a full driver’s licence
and is a very light consumer of alcohol.
3.6 Data Analysis
Marshall and Rossman (1999) define data analysis as ‘‘the process of bringing order,
structure and interpretations to the mass of collected data”. The results from the
research are exploratory due to the qualitative nature of the research. The method of
analysis begins with the transcription of the tape recordings followed by a content
analysis of the script. Malhotra (2004:189) characterises content analysis as “ the
objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of a
communication”.
The analysis o f focus group data is completely different from the analysis of data
collected through other qualitative or quantitative techniques. Focus group analysis is
difficult in that there is “no systematic protocol that applies to the diversity of
situations that can be encountered in focus group research”, Barbour and Kitzinger
(1999). The units of analysis may be words or characteristics, themes, space and time
52
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Research Methodology
measures or topics, Malhotra (2004). Precision is essential when categorising the data,
so that under examination by other coders, the results would be the same, Silverman
(2000).
Lewis et al (1997:339) highlights three unique characteristics of qualitative data
collection and analysis:
1. Based on meanings expressed through words
2. Collection of results in a non-standardised data requiring classification into
categories so it can be analysed meaningfully
3. Analysis conducted through the use of conceptualisation
The author examined differences and similarities amongst the themes outline so that
practical findings could then be compared and contrasted to the literature review,
which is the basis for the research objectives.
To easy the commentary on various themes, the author will insert the appropriate parts
o f the transcript from the focus group in to the analysis. By conducting this, passages
of similar themes will be grouped together in a coherent manner that will facilitate a
more simplistic analysis.
3.7 Presenting the Findings
Chapter six and seven outline the proposed interpretations and conclusions based on
the findings of the research.
53
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;
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Research Methodology
3.8 Conclusion
This chapter has educated the researcher with a broader knowledge of what the
research process entails. The literature review enabled the researcher to drawn up
appropriate objectives from which the focus group was decided upon as the qualitative
research process. The researcher came to the conclusion that the focus group was the
most appropriate method because:
1. An exploratory research approach was adopted
2. Personal contact was vital in order to encourage participants to share
information
3. The nature of the questions required a discussion among a group. Therefore a
questionnaire or interview would have been inappropriate.
The author has stressed the importance of secondary research in the research process
as it is often neglected in the research methodology outline.
The following chapter presents the interpretation and analysis of the findings obtained
for the transcript o f the focus group.
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Research Methodology
References
Brannick, T., Roche, W.K., (1997) Business Research Methods, Strategies,
Techniques and Sources, Oak Tree Press
Denise Threlfall, K., (1999) “Using focus groups as a consumer research tool”,
Journal o f Advertising Practice: Applied Marketing Science, Vol. 5, issue 4, pp. 102105
Domegan, C., Fleming, D., (2003) Marketing Research in Ireland, Theory and
Practice, 2nd Ed, Gill & Macmillan, Dublin
Lewis, P., Saunders Dr. M., & Thornhill, Dr. A., (1997) Research Methods for
Business Students, London: Pitman Publishing
Malhotra, N.K., (2004) Marketing Research; An applied Orientation, 4th Ed, Prentice
Hall International
Malhotra, N.K, (1999) Marketing Research; An Applied Orientation, 3rd Ed, Prentice
Hall, New Jersey
Malhotra, N., Birks, D., (2000) Marketing Research; An Applied Approach, European
Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey
Maykut, P., Morehouse, R., (1994) Beginning Qualitative Research, A Philosophic
and Practical Guide, The Farmer Press, London
Silverman, D., (2000) Doing Qualitative Research; A Practical Handbook, SAGE
Publications, London
Sykes, W„ (1999), “Taking stock: issues from the literature on validity and reliability
in qualitative research”, Journal o f Marketing Research Society, Vol.33, No.l
55
Chapter Four
Research Analysis & Findings
V
1
National
College*
Ireland
Analysis and Findings
4.0 Introduction
This chapter analysis the focus group in relation to the literature reviewed in chapter
one. The transcript of the focus group will be broken down into themed segments.
These segments will be examined under the research objectives, which were set out
in section 3.1.
Imperative to analysis is that the researcher must keep in mind what new
information is provided by the focus group. Focus group analysis is unique in that
data derived from a group process is in a focused manner. As a result, participants
influence each other, opinions change and new insights emerge. Participants learn
from each other and those things learned can shape attitudes and opinions. All these
factors must be taken into account in the analysis of data.
Research Objectives
The analysis is guided by the research plan, as the research plan guides and focuses
the research. The objective has determined what has been examined, but it is
important to note that in the focus group research, it is easy for the discussion to
drift off the point and hence new concepts can emerge that were not predicated.
The following is a reminder of the research objective for this dissertation.
Research Objective 1: to explore the recognition of emotion in advertisements
with particular reference to fear appeals and the NSC’s “Shame” drink driving
advertisement.
To gain an understanding in to peoples recognition and experiences of fear appeals
in advertising that promote safer driving behaviour specifically regarding the
National Safety Councils “Shame” drink driving advertisement.
57
Analysis and Findings
4.1 Emergent Themes from Discussion
On analysis of the focus group the researcher became aware of recurring themes that
emerged throughout. The researcher grouped all relevant data under the various
relevant categories. All the references from the focus group were chosen on the
basis of being most reflective of the topic being discussed at the time.
From examining the literature review it is evident that “communications using fear
appeals are designed to stimulate anxiety in an audience with the expectation that
the audience will attempt to reduce this anxiety by adopting, continuing,
discontinuing or awarding a specified cause of thought or action”, Kay (1972).
4.1.1 Themes in Relation to the Research Objective 1
To explore the recognition of emotion in advertisements with particular reference to
fear appeals and the NSC’s “Shame” drink driving advertisement.
4.1.2 Fear
One major theme that emergent from the transcript, under which all the other
themes can relate to was the detection of fear. Respondents identified with threats
while using key words such as aware, safety, scare and shock.
Michael: ...It’s just a shock
Paul: I was just shocked first like, ya can’t imagine it happening until you see it on
the screen like the heads bashing off each other
Jack: Well they re all fear advertisements like there re all there to scare you
Ciara: Well they are a lot more aware after watching the ads
Michael: Safety and the drivers
The following themes are all relevant to the fear theme stated above.
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Analysis and Findings
4.1.3
Recognition of Emotion
The participants were untroubled in remembering advertisements that used emotion
when they were asked to do so.
Louise: Like the Heineken ads are really funny and the Carlsberg ads as well. The
one with the house viewing is really funny when he walks out on to the balcony and
it’s overlooking the football pitch.
Paul: The maltesser ads always use sex or love to sell their products especially the
one with the girl and boy sitting on the sofa and she’s pregnant. That’s a love theme.
Ciara: Like the Benethon ads, they don’t actually sell the latest product but 1 think
its through emotion like love or happiness or something ... that they sell the brand
name.
Donal: There’s them other ads the drink driving ones and the seat belt ones, there
savage but then there suppose to stick in your head you know what 1 mean I don’t
know did you ever see them just ploughing in to someone.
Sarah: Ya they re there to make you scared to make you put your seatbelt on and
not to drive fast.
Michael: The milk tray ads as well all because the lady loves milk tray, that’s love
or lust and I would buy the chocolates because its kind of portrayed that these r
chocolates show that you 11 give her whatever she wants... and love I suppose f
The ease at which the respondents could recall emotional advertisements, how quick
they could recall them and the abundance of examples given, shows that the
participants have the capability to remember and to identify emotion in
advertisements. Wells et al (2003) states that “ ...advertisers that touch people’s
emotions with their messages have a greater success in getting consumers to
remember that message”. This argument tends to agree with the primary research
findings. As seen from the focus group transcription, emotion plays a major factor
in recalling an advertisement.
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Analysis and Findings
4.1.4
Awareness
It was widely agreed among the participants that when fear is used in
advertisements it brings awareness to a situation.
Louise: Like that government ad for the waste recycling is using disgust and fear to
make us more aware of what’s happening they re trying to make us more aware and
frighten in order for us to do something otherwise a plain and simple ad with some
guy talking in the background would have no relevance to us and we don’t relate to.
Ciara: When you think about it it is also using love to evoke the fear to make us
aware cause when the dad grads the girl to take her to safety of out harms way.
Jane: I agree he loves his daughter but he can see what’s happening therefore he
becomes aware of it out of the fear that something could happen to her.
Jack: Like it’s the same with those concern ad s when you see those kids on TV ya
just go oh Jesus.
The respondents feel that when fear is used as an emotion in an advertisement it
brings the idea of awareness faster. As seen from the literature review, LaTour and
Rotfeld (1997) affirm that fear is an emotional response that can induce awareness
and changes in attitude and behavior intentions. It can be true to say that when, fear
is used the viewer becomes more concerned about the threat Therefore, they take
action to reduce that threat. It is also noted that the respondents feel that when fear
and another emotion are combined together in advertisements, awareness is greater
and the threat becomes more urgent.
4.1.5
Reactions to Fear
Avoidance: Participants out rightly agreed that when they recognise the NSC’s
advertisements on television they change channel or turn away.
Jack: I would switch over as I just don’t like watching them.
Sarah: If the TV was far away Id just leave it on but I d probably turn my head or
something but if the remote was beside me I would change it.
60
Analysis and Findings
Jane: I agree, I switch the channel or leave to room to make some tea.
The participants have already indicated that they are able to recognise an emotional
advertisement. On recognising the fear element in some of the NSC’s
advertisements, the participants clearly describe how they avoid the exposure to the
advertisements by taking appropriate steps. The literature addresses this issue when
Witte (1992) comments on the defensive outcomes of fear appeals. She stated that
defensive avoidance was a resistance to a message by being inattentive to the
communication. Therefore, the participants are theoretically engaging in Witte’s
defensive avoidance theory.
Change Behaviour: The recognition of fear in an advertisement leads the way for
some alteration of behaviour. Participants have stated that when the threat is
relevant and the fear has been recognised, previously they have reacted in some way
to reduce that fear.
Jack: I put my seatbelt on all the time because I know from the ad what could
happen if I don’t and it might nt necessarily be my fault.
Michael: Ya definitely I would refer to that ad like even years ago if I was in the
back 1 would nt have put my seat belt on but now you re told to wear it.
Burke and Edell (1989), discussed in the literature, that emotions that were educed
by advertisements can influence and impact on attitudes and behaviour. This
argument tends to concur with the findings as there was an agreed response that the
recognition of fear in the seatbelt advertisement has changed all the respondents’
behaviour in order to reduce the threat.
The respondents maintain that the
advertisement has reinforced the point of wearing your seat belt both in the front
and back seats of a car. Therefore, it can be expected that if the threat is relevant to
individuals they can change behaviour.
61
Analysis and Findings
4.1.6Channel Switching
Channel switching is a common practice among all the participants of the focus
group when the road safety advertisements are aired on television and is a major
theme in the focus group. The overall belief was that one would watch the full
advertisement for the first time mainly for curiosity reasons. After viewing it once,
if it re-appeared they claimed they would turn it off or simply turn away. One
participant admitted that as a result of screening these advertisements that he had in
fact not viewed two of them in full before.
Paul: in the beginning it was more curiosity to watch them to see what happens but
I actually don’t watch them now.
Jack: I would switch over as I just don’t like watching them. When you see them
for the first time you just wonder what’s going to happen but I don’t like them at all.
Sarah: If the TV was far away Id just leave it on but I d probably turn my head or
something but if the remote was beside me I would change it.
Jane: I agree, I switch the channel or leave to room to make some tea. As soon as it
comes on you don’t want to watch it again.
All members of the focus group throughout the discussion mentioned a dislike of
the advertisements. Some opinions presented were that the advertisements were
ineffective as one refuses and avoids watching them. This can lessen the potential
effectiveness of the advertisements.
4.1.7
Plays in your mind
The respondents all agree that they did not like watching the advertisements.
However, it was suggested that even if one avoids the advertisements, after a
glimpse of the start of one of them, it could still re-play in your head.
Donal: I think that even if you do change channels you still have to see the start of
them and you go oh no its one of those ads and then it plays around in your head.
62
Analysis and Findings
Jack: Even in turning the channel when the ad comes on is in a way having an
effect on people because you know what’s going to happen you might not want to
watch it but it does play in your mind.
Ciara: Even though you know what’s going to happen you nearly play it through in
your head even if you do turn it over., you can still see what happens.
Sarah: Even though I don’t drive and I turn away I still know what happens anyway.
The respondents recognised that even if a person is to switch channels when the
advertisements are aired, that this does not truly reduce its effectiveness as the scene
is played through in your mind. As a result the ad has had an effect on the person,
maybe even more so than those who sit through them.
4.1.8
Male Drivers
It was strongly proposed that the inclusion of all drivers as males in the
advertisements seemed unfair and in some ways could take from the effectiveness of
the female viewer.
Jack: ok statistics might prove that boys are more likely to crash but what’s, the
harm in putting a girl in the drivers seat in one of those four ads rather than just girls
like..I think it’s sexist.
Jane: I agree with you on that. Girls drive too and girls cause accidents just as much
so in a way some females may regard those ads as not being important to them and
so they don’t have an effect on them.
Michael: Ya I hate when the guy comes on and he says slow down boys or little boy
racers. It really irritates me it feels like they are having a go at us all the time girls
speed to and so do older people and I don’t consider myself a boy.
Paul: I think that young people can take a real dislike to something like that and
then not heed the ad at all. If someone did nt like that ad well than its obviously not
going to be heeded and in the way children do the opposite to what their told this
could also be the case.
Jane: the last one was slow down boys and Michael is going to hit his girlfriend so
its aimed at fellows more so., even though the girls are there but it seems that its
63
,
Analysis and Findings
aimed at the boys for example slow down boys and the guy looking at the girl going
around the comer.
Commenting on the use of male drivers in all of the road safety advertisements, the
respondents felt that this seemed unfair and sexist. It was also suggested that the
non-usage of female drivers could exclude female viewers from relating to the ad
and hence reduce its effectiveness.
The message behind the speeding message, slow down and don’t speed on the roads,
seems to be outshone by the caption of the advertisement. The “Slow Down Boys”
caption seems to have attracted more attention than it should warrant. According
the Meenaghan and O’ Sullivan (1995) the idea that consumers generate their own
meanings while interacting with a text is of concern not just to advertisers and
marketers but also to society at large.
4.1.9
Penalty Points
The respondents that were able to drive admitted that the threat of getting penalty
points was much more forceful than the fear of killing someone.
,t.
A
*
i,
Jane: I know say if I was out driving along I’m thinking more so like are the Gardas
around are you going to get caught as opposed to if I put my foot down am I going
to kill someone.... I’m more concerned about the idea of points as apposed to
killing someone.
Jack: I think people think that they are invincible and maybe they think its not
going to happen to them but I would be more concerned with getting the points than
killing someone.
Michael: I have slowed down but to be honest I ve only slowed down because of
the penalty points.
Even though the respondents are aware of the advertisements and have seen the
consequences of what can happen while speeding or drink driving, the fact can be
recognised that the threat of getting penalty points is much greater than injuring or
killing someone. This refers directly to the literature, where Agres et al (1990) states
64
Analysis and Findings
that the strongest use of fear appeal is social disapproval”. The consequences of
killing someone are not taken as seriously as receiving points, incurring a higher
insurance premium or social disapproval.
4.1.10 Sound Effects and Theme Music
The music played and the sound effects in each separate advertisement had a major
effect on the advertisement’s effectiveness and ability to recall the advertisement.
Donal: 1don’t enjoy hearing the ads
Jack: The body-to-body one. If I hear the song it would remind me of the ad
know what I mean I associate the two of them together.
you
Louise: Ya I flick over when I hear that song body-to-body I hate it I don’t even
have to see the ad.
Ciara: and the cracking of the heads together is just awful.
Sarah: the sound of the boy crashing of his girlfriend’s head is actually too much
for me. I can’t bear it at all. I cringe.
?• ,
There was a unanimous response at the mention of music and sound effects in;the
^
advertisements. It can be noted that the music enhances the effectiveness of the ad,
as people can relate to the ad through its music and not just whether or not they
drink or drive. Samantha Mumbas song Body-to-Body was the one which was most
recalled by the participants. The participants widely agreed that the noise of the boy
hitting his girlfriend on the head made the advertisement most memorable. The
sound had a more pronounced effect and contributed to the fearful emotions evoked
in the advertisement.
65
Analysis and Findings
With Particular reference to the “Shame” drink driving advertisement, the following
themes emergent from the focus group.
4.1.11 Realism
Quinn, Meenaghan and Brannick (1992) pointed out in the literature that an
important factor in determining the success of a fear appeal message is how the
respondents perceive the credibility of the threat.
The participants jointly agreed that the “Shame” advertisement, above all the others,
was the most unrealistic ad and they could not relate to it. A conflicting issue arose
in the group when probed further to explain why the “Shame” ad has had no effect
on the respondents. The majority agreed that the advertisement was not a realistic
portrayal of what could happen in the given situation and therefore the
advertisement was discredited. However, one party expressed her opinion that she
felt that the ad was realistically portrayed.
Jane: I think we have a similar opinion that it’s on the far fetched side.
Michael: It’s just a freak accident.
Jack: Its hard to know if those ads are realistic what I mean is some of them are
kind of like a bit exaggerated like could that actually happen.
Louise: I know this sounds really bad and I know it’s a shameful ad but I just
wonder why the kid has not been more seriously injured because he’s just been
squashed by a car.
Paul: I was thinking that as well.
t
Donal: You re not just going to kill a kid it’s just a random thing to happen. Its just
so far fetched.
Jack: I don’t play football so I cant relate to it on that point either.
Ciara: I don’t think that its far fetched I can see a car coming through the hedge I
do think that it would roll so I do think that it would hit the child around here..
66
Analysis and Findings
argue that individuals who are exposed to strong fear communications, attributed to
a high credible source, would demonstrate the greatest change in attitudes and
behavior.
The respondents felt that the advertisements, in particularly the “Shame” ad were
portrayed in an unrealistic fashion. They felt that the graphics in the “Shame” ad
actually outweighed the realism of the message. They could not put themselves in
any position in the ad, could not relate to it and therefore this shadowed its
effectiveness. A member of the group also stated that he does not play football so
the ad had no bearing on him. The point was made that the respondents could not
associate the consequences as something that could possibly happen to them, as they
could not associate with the young man in the driver’s seat. Although one
participant challenged the group on this issue, it stands however that the majority of
the group believe it to be an unrealistic depiction of what could happen.
4.1.12 Relevance
r
When asked if they felt that the NSC’s advertisements and specifically the “Shame”
■i
advertisement had an impact on them, the respondents replied that they could relate
u
to the speeding, texting and seatbelt advertisements but they could not relate to the
’
“Shame” advertisement. An overwhelming belief stood among participants that, if
they could not relate or find relevance in an advertisement then the emotion was
overlook and the advertisement had no impact on them. Bennett (1996) as
mentioned before addresses the issue and states that the advertisement must be
relevant to the target audience in order to be successful.
Jane: Going against what statistics have proven it is older people for example in our
parents age who would be doing the drink driving and it’s the younger people that
do the speeding so in this sense 1 feel that that ad is aimed at the wrong people and
therefore I don’t think that it holds (Shame ad) any relevance to me and that can
stick in peoples heads when they see the ad on television
Ciara: I agree I think that young people will organise that if they are going out and
will be drinking they wont take the car with them whereas older people go out...
67
Analysis and Findings
they just go out with the car they have a couple of drinks and then they drive home
they don’t have it planned but they don’t have it planned either for a drinking
session ya know that kind of way its not in their heads to go out drinking for a
session so they are never as organised as young people.
Michael: I think its very unacceptable amongst young people to drink and drive...
but among older people its alright as nobody questions them and they ve been doing
it all their life anyway I feel that that ad does not have any influence on whether or
not I would drink and drive its too freak an accident anyway.
Jack: That ad passes over my head 1 don’t relate to it as I don’t play football
therefore I’m not threaten by the situation presented.
In relation to the other advertisements the respondents felt that they could relate to
those in some way. When questioned if the “Thump” seatbelt advertisement has
resulted in the respondents being more aware of the consequences, they all agreed
that it had.
Michael: Ya definitely I would refer to that ad like even years ago if I was in the
back I would nt have put my seat belt on but now you re told to wear it.
Louise: Like even in a taxi sometimes when I’m sitting in the back they 11 tell you
to put your seatbelt on.
Jack: After seeing the ad and ya can hear the banging of the heads there s nothing
as worse as that but eh I put my seatbelt on all the time because I know from the ad
what could happen if I don’t and it might nt necessarily be my fault.
Jane: But ya know that if you don’t wear your seatbelt there is a good chance that
you could die.. ..but the drink driving ad does nt make a huge impact.
The participants agreed that the “Shame” advertisement had no relevance to them as
there was nothing in the ad that they could relate to. It was also felt that the ad was
actually aimed at the wrong people and therefore could not have an effect on them.
However they expressed that the “Thump” seatbelt ad had relevance to everyone
68
Analysis and Findings
and therefore had a dramatic effect on people changing their behaviour. Relevance
plays a major factor in the recognition of emotion in advertisements.
4.2 Conclusion
The purpose of this chapter was to present the findings reached from the research
relevant to the objective set out. The next chapter will draw up some of the principal
conclusions from the analysis and present recommendations that the author would
make for future research.
69
Analysis and Findings
References
Agres, J.S., Edell. J.A., Dubitsky, T.M., (1990) Emotion in Advertising: Theoretical and
Practical Explorations, Quorum Books, NY
Bennett, R., (1996) “Effects of Horrific Fear Appeals on Public Attitudes Towards AIDS”,
International Journal o f Advertising, Vol. 15, pp. 183-202
LaTour, M.S., Rotfeld, H.J., (1997) “There are threats and (maybe) Fear-Caused Arousal:
Theory and Confusions of Appeals to Fear and Fear Arousal Itself5, Journal o f
Advertising, Vol. XXVI, autumn
Meenaghan, T., O’Sullivan, P., (1995) Marketing Communications in Ireland, Oak Tree
v
Press, Dublin
Quinn, V., Meenaghan, T., Brannick, T., (1992) “Fear Appeals: Segmentation is the Way 'if
to go”, International Journal o f Advertising, Vol. 11, pp.35 5-366
Wells, Burnett, Moriarty (2003) Advertising, Principles and Practice, 6th Edition, Prentice
Hall International 6th edition, 2003
Witte, K., (1992) “ Putting the Fear Back into Fear Appeals: The Extended Parallel
Process Model”, Communication Monographs, December, Vol. 59, pp. 329-349
70
^
Chapter Five
Conclusions & Recommendations
National
College*
Ireland
Conclusions and Recommendations
5.0 Introduction
The preceding chapter analysed concisely the particular themes that emerge from the
primary research. It should be remembered that qualitative research is exploratory in
nature and is difficult to label as conclusive. Therefore the author will subjectively present
what she sees as the conclusions to be drawn from the research.
The author acknowledges that issues arose that were considered in chapter one but the
primary research also revealed issues that the author did not address in great detail in the
literature review. Over the course of the study the researcher was able to gain a telling
insight into the opinions of the respondents concerning the topic at hand.
The author will now explicate the main findings in accordance with the objective of this
dissertation as set out in chapter three.
Research Objective 1
The discussion on individual’s recognition of emotional appeals in advertising resulted in
many interesting conclusions. Firstly, the respondents were capable of identifying
emotion in advertisements swiftly and with out any hindrance, which concludes that when
emotion is used in advertisements as a means of captivating its viewers, it can be
recognised by its audience. This directly ties in with what Wells et al (2003) stated as that
“ ...advertisers that touch people’s emotion with their messages have a greater success in
getting consumers to remember that message” .
The NSC’s road safety advertisements were identified as having a memorable effect on all
of the respondents. However, their recognition of the advertisements has averted their
exposure to them, as the respondents engage in defensive avoidance strategies such as
changing the channel, turning away or even leaving the room, in order to avoid the
exposure of the threat The theory examined in the literature review discusses the outcome
variables of fear appeals as defensive avoidance and reactance.
72
Conclusions and Recommendations
The respondents openly do not like watching the road safety advertisements as they
vividly combine descriptions and depictions to convey the message. The research findings
indicate that although the respondents had previously shunned the advertisements, the ads
still had an impact on their behaviour. It was explain by the respondents in the focus
group, that even though one might not necessarily watch the ads anymore, if even a
glimpse of the ad is caught, then images from the first time viewing it can be re enforced
in your mind, mounting to its effectiveness.
The “Thump” seatbelt advertisement compared with the other four advertisements played
for the respondents, has had immense success, as all the participates admitted to having
altered their attitudes and behaviour because o f the threat created in the advertisement.
The respondents felt that they could relate to this advertisement on a much deeper level
than the “Shame” advertisement.
The respondents felt that the “Thump” ad was much needed, as the fear content evoked
awareness to the devastating effects of not wearing a seatbelt. The respondents agreed that
fear can induces awareness and hence alter attitudes and behaviours.
The sound effects and theme music used in the advertisements have enhanced their
effectiveness, as the respondents consider that the body-to-body song and the noise of the
boy hitting his girlfriend on the head are the most memorable and recognised parts of the
ad. As a result, it is fair to say that fear appeals have made the respondents aware of the
consequences of a similar situation.
During the course o f the focus group, it strongly emerged that the respondents felt that the
threat of getting penalty points was much greater than the fear o f killing someone. The
respondents revealed that among society a social threat would be considered much more
forceful than a physical threat.
The damaging consequences of drink driving, does have an influence on the respondents
behaviour Nonetheless, this has not been re-enforced by the “Shame” Advertisement. The
respondents feel that it is socially unacceptable to drink and drive. However, they also
73
Conclusions and Recommendations
considered that this particular advertisement has no relevance to them even though it has
been aimed at them and is neither a realistic nor credibly portrayal of events.
The majority of the respondents could not even place themselves in a same occurrence as
illustrated in the advertisement as they could not associate with the young man in the ad.
Since the audience cannot find any relevance in an advertisement to themselves the
emotion is overlooked and the advertisements has had no impact.
Rogan (2000) explains that an advertising message is much more effective if the audience
feels a sense of involvement.
This can also be connected to the male representation in the advertisement. Overall, the
respondents were resentful of the fact that the blame is place continuingly on males for the
reckless driving behaviour on Irish roads. The respondents also expressed a view that the
inclusion of just male drivers could actually take from the effectiveness of the female
viewer.
5.2 Recommendations for Future Study
The author conducted only one focus group in the Dublin area. Further research would
have been invaluable but was not deemed possible due to financial time and constraints.
Extensive and additional research would have attained a wider representation of the target
population and proven useful in the confirmation of results. Further focus group analysis
of the penalty points in regard to social marketing would be beneficial.
Further study on segmentation could also be explored. It became apparent from the
literature review that the “ same fear appeals may produce different perceptions on
different people”, Witte (1995). Careful identification of the correct segment would allow
the message to be received by that segment and prevent message screening and channel
hopping.
Another topic for further investigation would be the male portrayal in the road safety
advertisements. It is likely that due to the “sexist” inclusion of males as drivers in all of
74
Conclusions and Recommendations
the NSC’s advertisements, that the effectiveness of the ads will decrease with time.
Further research could be carried out to investigate how the ineffectiveness of the ads
among men could be achieved whilst still targeting male drivers.
The level of fear in social marketing could be examined further to investigate if a higher
level of fear would have a more pronounced effective in relation to the road safety
advertisements.
There is a wealth of other research that could be undertaking in relation to the unrealistic
depiction of the “Shame” advertisement This could provide an insight into why this
advertisement and not the others has been judged as irrelevant and unlikely to occur. An
extensive study could be carried out into the alcohol consummation of the participants, so
that the results would be a fair and total evaluation of the proposed research.
5.3 Limitations of the Research
The researcher did not have any other prior experience in carrying out research so this in
its self is a limitation. Limitations o f time and money resources prevented further focus
groups to be held, which if were carried out would have provide for an extensive
collection o f information data.
If the researcher were to carry this study out again, she would expand the range of the
sample to include random sampling. If time and resources were not a concern, perhaps the
inclusion o f another method of primary research could be considered.
Conclusions and Recommendations
5.4 Final Conclusion
Fear appeal advertising is used by means of extracting an emotional response from it’s
viewers, in order to get them to act in a certain way. There has been much examination in
to the use of appeals in advertising, especially the use of fear. The literature review
provides a solid piece of work, from which the author clearly outlines the objectives of
this research. The advertising industry in Ireland was discussed to order to gain a
comprehendible insight into the Irish advertising sector. The objectives were laid out in
the methodology chapter and the focus group was chosen as the research method. The
transcript from the focus group was then analysis by content analysis and finally the
conclusions were drawn on this analysis.
This research dissertation achieved an extensive understanding of fear appeals in
advertisements and an understanding in to people’s recognition of them.
76
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Electronic Sources
http://asai.ie/about.htm
http://iapi.com/adeffective/cases02/shame.htm
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http://medialive.ie/television.chshare.html
http://penaltypoints.ie/about_nsc.html
Http://www.aeforum.org/european/Ireland.html
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http ://www.medi alive, ie/general/top. html
http://www.tristate.edu/facuity/herbig/imc09.htm
RTE News (2004), April 28.04.04
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Theme Sheet for Focus Groups
What do you think o f advertising in general?
Do you notice different styles of advertising? IE Funny, Informative, Humour, Ironic?
What type of advertising do you think is most effective?
Advertisements will then be used as stimuli material in the focus group.
What you think those advertisements all have in common?
Which one do you think is most effective?
Have you ever discussed these advertisements with your friends?
What did you talk/say about them?
Do you think that that threats presented are realistic?
Why/ Not? What could make them more realistic?
Do you think that the threat or event could happen to you or your friends if you don’t
do what they are recommending you to do?
Do you think that the advertisements show you effectively how to avoid the situations
presented?
Do you think that people are frightened/alert after watching these advertisements?
Do you think it is right for advertisers to make people feel frightened or guilty to get
them to act in a certain way that they want?
Why?
Does it affect you?
What is your personally opinion of the advertisement Shame?
What threats are present in the Advertisement?
Death, Injury, guilt, Social disapproval..
Do you think that the advertisement is realistic?
How do you think people cope when they see these advertisements on television?
How do you react when these advertisements are aired on television?
Switch over/ joke / change behaviour
What do you associate with the advertisements?
Music/ Songs used.
85
Do you believe that drink driving is less socially accepted nowadays or do you think
that due to the mass number of people caught each week that others are more tolerant
of it?
Has the advertisement made you change you re behaviour?
Do you think that the adverts are informative or do you think that it is so frightening
that people miss the underlining message?
Do you think that what happens in the adverts really happen in real life?
86
Focus group Transcription
Elaine: Have you noticed different styles of advertisements on television?
Louise: Like the Heineken ads are really funny and the Carlsberg ads as well. The one with the
house viewing is really funny when he walks out on to the balcony and it's overlooking the
football pitch.
All: ya,
Paul: The maltesser ads always use sex or love to sell their products especially the one with the
girl and boy sitting on the sofa and she’s pregnant. That’s a love theme.
Michael: or it could be happiness
Ciara: Like the Benethon ads, they don’t actually sell the latest product but I think its through
emotion like love or happiness or something ... that they sell the brand name.
Jack: Insurance ads are informative ads like, call this number to get a free quote or there re
informing you where they are and what their rates are ,like.
Michael: The milk tray ads as well all because the lady loves milk tray, that’s love or lust and I
would buy the chocolates because its kind o f portrayed that these chocolates show that you 11
give her whatever she wants... and love I suppose
' Louise: Like that government ad for the waste recycling is using disgust and fear to make us
more aware of what’s happening they re trying to make us more aware and frighten in order for
us to do something otherwise a plain and simple ad with some guy talking in the background
would have no relevance to us and we don’t relate to.
Ciara: When you think about it it is also using love to evoke the fear to make us a ware cause
when the dad grads the girl to take her to safety o f out harms way.
Jane: I agree he loves his daughter but he can see what’s happening therefore he becomes aware
o f it out o f the fear that something could happen to her.
Michael: What other ads are there
Donal: There’s them other ads the drink driving ones and the seat belt ones, there savage but then
there suppose to stick in your head you know what I mean I don’t know did you ever see them
just ploughing in to someone.
Michael: Ya or you re just there smoking and
Louise: ya the smoking ad
Sarah: Ya
Louise: There actually like...I really would turn it off like so
Jane: ya
Jack: Its hard to know if those ads are realistic you know what I mean Some o
f them are
kind of like what I mean is they re a bit egsaderated kind o f Like could that really possibly happen
Jamie: ya like would they actually happen
Jack: Like ya some of them I think are a bit far fetched
Pause
Elaine: Do you think television advertisements work, Do you think people buy from them
Jack:It depends.. I would think that., no offence but that women are more susceptible like..
Louise: ya like for make up...
Jane: ya and anti-wrinkling creams and what n o t . . but that only cause we don’t want to get
wrinkles
Jack: ya like that
Louise: Laughs
Jack: ya definitely cause I think they are more like maybe into their beauty or what not like so ya
know what I mean like so there more susceptible to them., and they’re more targeted maybe
towards them as well
Louise: Ya
Jane: I think., ya know the new impulse ad ya know the..goddess one.
Lousie and Sarah: Ya She’s walking on the beach
Jane: Well I just actually went and smelt that one it smells rotten
Louise: Its horrible it’s disgusting
Jane: but I..it was in my head
Michael: Claire: Eadaoin: Ya
Louise: After seeing it on television
Jane: exactly it’s the newest product
Pause
Elaine: So like just say if you were watching a film and the advertisements come on., would you sit
down a watch them or would you get up and get a cup of tea
Louise: switch over
Ciara: It depends if the remote is working or not
Everyone: Laughs
Ciara: But eh ya I would nt. ifI was watching the adverts they would nt really be... unless the
products were relative to me or relevant to me 1 would nt pass any remarks
Michael: If I was recording something I would nt record the ads.
Elaine: You would nt record them or record them and then fast forward them
Michael: Well if 1 was watching them Id fast forward them Id say
Elaine: Ok. What I’m going to do now is I’m going to show you some ads. So I just want your
opinion on them when we re finished.
Video Time ^
Michael: Safety and the drivers one of them is about pedestrians and one was about the driver and
texting
Jane: I know from the .. . when the little kid like most cases its as if they re all really happy and
enjoying life and the next minute., dead and then its like... well that was a driver as well and then
the last one its slow down boys and Michael is going to hit his girlfriend so its aimed at fellows
more so., even the girls are there but it just seems that its kind of like slow down boys like your
man looking at the girl going around the comer eh I did nt see the guy in the van what was he like
but..and then ..eh., your man driving his van
Elaine: So who do you think the ads a re aimed at?
Jane: Well they re using men as an example and that’s what there saying.. .that men drive fast and
women are safer drivers then men eh that sort of thing. Women s insurance is lower than men’s.
Women s insurance is lower than blokes.
Jack: Ya know like obviously the whole thing is..... they are all fear like..There not... there all fear
appeal there trying to I don’t know scare ya to a certain point like would ya ...would ya actually
do... would you actually like do that do ..but em I don’t think..Ok statistics prove that boys are
lads are more likely to crash but like what’s the harm in putting a girl in the drivers seat in one of
those four ads rather than like lads.. I think that that’s sexist and all
{
Louise: ya there re all lads
Jane: I agree with you on that. Girls drive too and girls cause accidents just as much so in a way
some females may regard those ads as not being important to them and so they don’t have an effect
on them.
Michael: Ya I hate when the guy comes on and he says slow down boys or little boy racers..It really
irritates me it feels like they are having a go at us all the time girls speed to and so do older people
and I don’t consider myself a boy.
Paul: I think that young people can take a real dislike to something like that and then not heed the
ad at all. If someone did nt like that ad well than its obviously not going to be heeded and in the
way children do the opposite to what their told this could also be the case.
Jane: the last one was slow down boys and Michael is going to hit his girlfriend so its aimed at
fellows more so., even though the girls are there but it seems that its aimed at the boys for example
slow down boys and the guy looking at the girl going around the comer.
Jack: I know that statistics and all that prove but still at the some tim e.... and also like I don’t know
if people... like are people more like... if 1 was to go out in my car or whatever would I be more
afraid of like say I don’t know like actually at the end if something did happen to me like losing my
actually licence like
The penalty points like the end result of that is that obviously something is going to happen like the
penalty points or you’re going to kill somebody but like when they are showing the advertisement
does young people see that ok I could lose my license III not be able to drive the car so socially
acceptable where as they could go out for a drink.... Are they more afraid of losing their licence
than actually killing someone
Jane: I know say if I was out driving along I’m thinking more so like are the Gardas around are you
going to get caught as opposed to if I put my foot down am I going to kill someone.... I’m more
concerned about the idea o f points as apposed to killing someone.
All: Ya
Jane: As apposed to if 1 put my foot down am I going to kill somebody and ya don’t think about it
that way and I think when you see the ad on the telly and ya heard the banging of the heads together
All: ya ya
Jane: and it’s horrible but at the same time I think I’m more concerned about the idea of points as
apposed to killing somebody. I’m not saying its right but that’s just the way 1 view it
Jack: I think people think that they are invincible and maybe they think its not going to happen to
them but 1 would be more concerned with getting the points than killing someone.
Michael: 1 have slowed down but to be honest I ve only slowed down because o f the penalty points.
Elaine: So would most people be more afraid of not being able to go out and drive and meet their
friends than o f killing somebody
Jack: I think people think their invincible and maybe they think its just not going to happen to
them ... more likely to get penalty points
Jane: its going to happen its going to happen like
Jack: like it would be a freak accident like
Michael: see that’s the thing I would say that some of those accidents were freak accidents
Elaine: So you don’t think that they are realistic
Michael: No No ,Like if someone steps out in front of ya theres a good chance that you’re going to
kill him
Jack: But that’s because that fella was looking at that girl
Jane: Ya but look at your guy driving he was driving and your man just walked out
Louise: Ya he hit him from behind in the car
Michael: that s a pedestrian ad
Louise :ya
Michael: Although he was doing the safe cross code
Ciara: Like that’s more for to be aware than o f driving wise. Everybody has to be aware like
Jane: Ya that it works both ways and that its not just the driver.
Pause
Elaine: OK Have you ever spoken about those advertisements with your friends?
Michael: like the first ad most people refer to that ad even still, but still like I know you re suppose
to wear your seatbelt but it especially bought awareness to wearing it in the back
Elaine: Would you ask someone to put the seatbelt on because of the ads?
Michael: Ya definitely, I would refer to that ad like even years ago if I was in the back I would nt
have put my seat belt on but now you re told to wear it.
Louise: Like even in a taxi sometimes when I’m sitting in the back they 11 tell you to put your.,
seatbelt on.
Jack: After seeing the ad and ya can hear the banging of the heads there s nothing as worse as that
but eh I put my seatbelt on all the time because I know from the ad what could happen if I don’t
and it might nt necessarily be my fault.
Michael: Ya that’s right
Jane: Realistically, Does anyone else feel like a knob sitting in the back of the car with the seatbelt
on?
Louise: Ya
Everyone: Laughs
Louise: Ya ya feel like a child
Michael: Its not that bad
Ciara: ya not when ya see them in the ad
Michael: Ya is not bad and plus it’s the law so...
Jane: But ya know that if you don’t wear your seatbelt there is a good chance that you could
die... .but the drink driving ad does nt make a huge impact
Elaine: So do you think that the people that ask you to put your seatbelt on are more concerned
about getting stopped and getting penalty points than actually crashing and killing somebody
Sarah: Ya
Jack: I would say it’s both
Everyone: Both
Ciara: Ya well nobody thought about it. Ah the seat belts ya don’t really need it. Ah you’re only
going down the road
Michael: Well ya if you’re only going down the road ya but I put it on for myself
Jane: Id feel wrong like. You always kind of feel like theirs something missing here. Ya know that
ad they used to have. It was nt on that video but it was a fella, it was one for the road and and his
keys were slashed down, he put his keys on the counter..
Sarah: Ya and then the drink all turns to blood
Ciara: ya the one where the cars going in to the garden
Jane: No it was nt that one it was going back a few years ago and it has a picture of his wife and
child visiting his grave
Ciara: Yes
Jane: And he came down a hill or something like that. I can’t really remember what it was but that
was for seatbelts and before it was drink driving. Like you were saying before it was brought in in
law everything was aimed at drink driving as apposed to now we ve got the seatbelts and the whole
watch what your doing
Elaine: So do you think that the ads are portrayed in a realistic manner?
Jane: But ya know that kind of if you don’t wear youre seat belt there is a good chance you could
die*
Sarah: Ya they re there to make you scared to make you put your seatbelt on and not to drive fast.
JAck: They re there for a reason so ya kind of have to like as a safety feature so 1 suppose
Pause.
Elaine: How do you think people feel after watching those ads?
Ciara: Well they are a lot more aware after watching the ads
Jack: I would flick now if I seen them on, 1 would nt keep them, I would nt watch them. I would
actually flick over cause even the song in that one Body to body jesus when you hear that
All: Ya
Jack: and the cracking of the head
All Ya:
Michael: When I’m driving around and I think I’m going a little fast I think oh just slow down
cause you definitely think of the ads
Jane: Ya
Michael :If you think you’re going a little fast ya think ya better slow down, put on your seatbelt
cause ya just think of all the things that could happen. The ads are so graphic
Jane: oes anyone remember the Australian ad?
Sarah: Oh.Ya
Jane: 1 think it was at a cross road and the fellow was after drinking a load of beer and he was
driving along drunk. And he drives through the crosswords and there’s a big articulated truck
Jack: Oh go away..
Jane: And he goes straight into it. They don’t do it by half’s over there
All: Laugh
Pause
Elaine: can you identify themes coming out in those advertisements
Jack: Well they are all fear appeal advertisements like they are there to scare ya you know what I
mean like to make you realise that you can do something wrong with out, you don’t have to like,
you don’t necessarily have to be drunk like ya just getting into your car., ya know, if you drive off
without your seatbelt on.
Jane: Simply eyeing someone up like your man and the van going by
AI1:MM
Jack; ya sure everybody does it
All: Laugh
Pause.
Elaine: Do you think that those ads are better than other fear appeal advertisements as in... like
does anyone know any other fear appeal advertisements
Jane: It’s not really a fear appeal advertisement but on some o f the main roads going down the
country there’s just these cars.
Sarah: Ya ya
Jane: Just in along the side of the road that have been organised in that way, they are real cars that
have been in accidents and they just show kind o f the damage that can be done
Michael: Its a real car on the side of the road
All: ya
Jane: Its up on a ramp just showing you what can happen
Sarah: And people do slow down after seeing them
Jane: You do ya kind of go oh jeasus and even in kind of like newspapers., have you ever seen the
road carnage headlines on a Monday... like 6 more people killed and they have a picture of the car
they ve been in and you’re looking at it going how the.... It’s just completely mangled
Michael: Ya like where’s the car
Elaine: how do you react when you see those advertisements on TV?
Paul: I was just shocked first like, ya can’t imagine it happening until you see it on the screen like
the heads bashing o ff each other, I always put on my seatbelt anyway cause like Angela said ya
kind o f feel like ya have to .... I have slowed down but to be honest 1 ve only slowed down because
o f the penalty points but it would be a combination of the two as well..... especially if I’m in a built
up area
Elaine: would you switch over or would you watch the whole ad
Paul: MMM in the beginning it was more curiosity to watch them to see what happens but I
actually don’t watch them now
Jack: I would switch over cause I just don’t like watching them. Like some of them are too
graphic... well if you’re eating your dinner
All: Laugh
Jack: it’s just turned off., you’re not going to watch them... and like what Padraig said you know
what’s going to happen That way they don’t have a lot of life as in an advertisement and I don’t
think that they should be on TV too long either because people, there just passive like when they ve
seen it a few times ya know what I mean
Elaine: but do you think that after seeing the advertisements for the first time that its
jack: Ah ya
Elaine: Got people to notice
Jack: ya ya ..ya
Elaine: Eadaoin would you actually make a point o f getting up and switching the advertisement or
would you just continue watching
Sarah: well if I actually had to get out of my sit I probably would nt bother
All: Laugh
Sarah: ya I d just watch it........... Well like if the TV s very far away Id just leave it on but id
probably turn my head or something but if the remote was beside me I would change it. Even
though I don’t really drive I still know what happens anyway
Elaine: Why do you change it?
Sarah: I know it does happen like and that but eh
Michael: It’s upsetting
Sarah: It can be too much sometimes even though the amount of times ya see it.....
Ciara: Even though ya know what’s going to happen so you already have already played it through
in your head even if you do turn it over., ya can still see what happens
Louise: Ya
Jane: Ya as soon as it comes on ya don’t want to watch it again
Jack: Like it’s the same with those concern ads when you see those kids on the TV ya just go oh
jeasus
All: Ya
Jack: especially when you’re eating your dinner
All: Laugh
Louise: Ya you just stop what your doing
Jack they’re terrible, I think there terrible aswell
Pause
Elaine: I have one more video to show you
Video:
Elaine: So what is you re opinion on that advertisement?
Jane: 1 know this sounds really bad and I know it’s a shameful ad but I just wonder why the kid has
nt been more seriously injured because hes just been squashed by a car
Louise yep me too
Jane: The man just went flying over him
Paul: I was thinking that as well
Jack: I always thought that the way the flower is sliced I always thought that the head was going to
fly o ff
All: laugh
Jack: off the kid.. I thought that s what they were showing like ya know what I mean
Elaine: So you don’t think that they are a realistic portrayal of what could really happen
Jane: I don’t know, I don’t think so
Donal its like you re not just going to kill a random kid Its just a random thing to happen
All: Laugh
Donal: Yahave to do it right, stand there... we re going to knock this car over
I don’t like those ads Ldon’t enjoy hearing them but I think that even if you do change channels ya
have to see the start of them and ya go oh shit like its one of those ads and then it plays around in
your head and lets say you’re walking out the door and ya say oh its one of those ads and you’re
getting into your car well they would actually have an influence on you. I would put my seat belt on
and I would slow down.
Elaine: So if you were driving would you drink and drive
Donal: O f course not, it’s against he law. Laugh. Eh no I would nt do that anyway but like I don’t
know ... people just forget that like. Ya people think that’s it does nt happen to you like its not
going to happen like ... Ill just do this but Its gotta happen to someone though
Jane: going against what’s Statistics have proven its older people that would be more like in our
parents age who would be doing the drink driving and it’s the young people that do the speeding
Michael: the laws not that old like... its only about 15 years like since
Jane: Ya... like the drink driving
Michael: ya you could drink like 4/5 pints and drive
Jane: ya and our parents still carry that idea on
Louise: Ya they ve all been driving and driving
Jane: And that’s not saying there are the people who drink and drive and the young people are the
ones who speed but... that s kind of going against what they’re saying so maybe that will stick in
peoples heads and then they don’t relate to the ads.
Jane: Going against what statistics have proven it is older people for example in our parents age
who would be doing the drink driving and it’s the younger people that do the speeding so in this
sense 1 feel that that ad is aimed at the wrong people and therefore I don’t think that it holds
(Shame ad) any relevance to me and that can stick in peoples heads when they see the ad,on
television
Ciara: I agree I think that young people will organise that if they are going out and will be drinking
they wont take the car with them whereas older people go out... they just go out with the car they
have a couple of drinks and then they drive home they don’t have it planned but they don’t have it
planned either for a drinking session ya know
Michael: I think its very unacceptable amongst young people to drink and drive... but among older
people its alright as nobody questions them and they ve been doing it all their life anyway I feel that
that ad does not have any influence on whether or not I would drink and drive its too freak an
accident anyway.
Elaine: Do you think the older people are more tolerant o f it?
Michael: No body questions them
Ciara: I think that young people organise that if hey are going to go out and drink so they wont take
the car with them where as older people go o u t... they just go out with the car together and they
just have a couple of drinks and then they go home they don’t have it planned but they don’t have it
planned for a drinking session ya know that kind of way, its not in their heads like to go out
drinking for a session so there never organised as much as young people will
Jane: Do you know the designated Dessie ad?
Ciara: Sorry
Jane: the designated Dessie ad
Ciara: No what was that
Jane: it was kind o f like a joke its like when you come out some ones the designated driver
Jack; its like theres another game as well, ya know where ya put your key in to a bpwl and ya take
out the key and that’s who you go home with
Jane laugh
Jack: that’s the designated driver for the night
Louise: That’s a good idea is nt it
Michael: You could just get a taxi though
All: Laugh
Jane: Old Bogart here cant really do that so
All. Laugh
Pause:
Elaine: What do you associate with the advertisements....... as in ... Myles at the beginning you
mentioned that when you hear the song you think of the advertisement
Jack: Well the body-to-body one. If I hear the song it would remind me o f the ad ya know what I
mean I associate the two of them together like so I would
Elaine: So in regards tothat advertisement how do you think people cope when they see that
one..............Do you think its effective?
Jane: I think we have the similar opinion in that it’s a bit on the far fetched sided
Jack: Ya
Jane: so you might just pick that idea out instead and ignore that main point
Ciara: I don’t think that it’s far fetched. I can see a car coming through the hedge. I do think it
would roll so I do think that it would hit the child around here. It would flatten the kid and the car
would go on and the kid would be lying there so it would nt necessarily cut him in half
Michael: But like the point..... The general points ... it’s just a freak accident
Elaine: So you don’t think that it could happen
Michael: No 1 do, definitely ... like I have crashed cars and I have been drinking and then driving,
III admit it, so I do believe that it can happen to me but I think that it would be a freak accident to
happen to roll the car into a garden and kill a child
All: Laugh
Michael: but eh ... ya I don’t know.... It’s just a shock
Elaine: So people are alert after watching them
Donal: I think that people are more alert after watching the ads or having seen them for a split
second but I do think they need to be reminded like, kept reminded o f what could happen.
Louise: Ya like they ve only been out like in the last few years
Angela: But even like... I don’t think they re bad in any way.. It’s a constant reminder to us and we
need that like... people are killed every weekend so..... ya know operation lifesaver .. ..ya know the
gardai do that operation when the long weekends are on
Michael: Ya
Jack: If they work and they re effective enough and they decrease the fatalities on the roads ... well
then they are good as long as they are screened like shown at the approiate times.
Jane: Like they are a great idea like Its always come to the for front the amount o f people that have
been killed or if you’re going along... and some twat goes flying by., and ya just miss them..
All: Laugh
Elaine: do you think the adverts are informative or do you think that they are so frightening that
people just miss the point o f the whole thing?
Jane: I don’t think a kid getting knocked over., that you can’t really miss the point in that basically,
this is a consequence, it’s necessarily the conscious that you made have if you re speeding or if you
were drinking and driving but this is what can happen so . ya get the point overall but the drink' ■*■’*
driving ads doesn’t really make a huge impact.
Jack: That last ads is just the shame of drink driving is nt it?
Jane Ya
Louise: Ya the shame
Jack: that’s the first time Ive actually like realised that the whole shame thing was on it. I never
knew it was called the shame ad
Ciara: We really need them because even the smoking ad people don’t realise that all that smoke
was getting into you lungs and then they see it and it’s a fact and then they go oh god
Donal: That’s very true
Ciara: and then it comes up in conversation anyway like ya hear about them even if you don’t see
them. Like people do discuss or mention them. You don’t necessarily have to seen them to know of
them. And people talk about how graphic they are so you kind o f look out for them then.
Jack: Even in turning the channel when the ad comes on is in a way having an effect on people
because you know what’s going to happen you might not want to watch it but it does play in your
mind.
Pause.
Elaine: Alright I think everyones tired, Thanks for coming, that’s it its over
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