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An Exploratory Examination in to National Safety Council’s Fear Appeal Advertisements through the Use of the Irish Television Media Author: Elaine Duff A dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the BA in European Business Studies and Languages. National College of Ireland Mayor Street I.F.S.C Dublin 1 Supervisor: Mr Serge Basini May 2004 Declaration I hereby certify that this material, which I now submit for assessment on the programme of study leading to the award of a BA in European Business Studies and Languages, is entirely my own work and has not been submitted for assessment for any other academic purpose other than in partial fulfilment for that stated above. Signe< Elaine Duff Acknowledgements Firstly I would like to express appreciation to my family, especially my parents who have provided me with every kind of love and support throughout my life. I would not have been able to do half the things I ve done without them. To Des and Molly, thanks so much for EVERYTHING, as always!!!! (Especially when things get too technical for me) I would also like to extend my gratitude to Caroline Spillane, NSC, for all her help. It was much appreciated. To my supervisor, Mr Serge Basini, thank you for your valuable help and advice in guiding me through the writing of this dissertation. And finally, to the best friends in the world, Angela, Caoimhe, Claire ( the NCI Coffee buds!!) and Myles. You have all served your time at listening to me going on and it’s much appreciated. Grumpy, thank so much for help through this year! i. Title Page ii. Declaration i ii. Acknowledgements iv. Table of Contents v. Abstract Chapter One - Literature Review 1.0 Introduction 2 1.2 Advertising 2 1.3 Changing Attitudes and Behaviors 3 1.3 Emotional Appeals in Advertisements 6 1.3.1 Types of Emotions 7 1.3.2 Why Use Emotion in Advertising 9 1.4 Introduction to Fear Appeals 10 1.4.1 Fear Appeals 10 1.4.2 Important Components of the Fear Appeal Process 11 1.4.3 Outcome Variables Of Fear Appeals 12 1.4.4 Physical versus Social Threats in Fear Appeals 12 1.4.5 Two Different Uses of Fear Appeals in Advertisings 13 1.4.6 How Fear Appeal Works 14 1.4.7 Fear Appeal Model 14 1.4.8 The Parallel Process Model 14 1.4.9 Protection Motivation Theory 15 1.4.10 Segmentation 15 1.4.11 Factors to Consider When Using Fear Appeals 16 1.5 Conclusion 18 Chapter Two Advertising Industry in Ireland iv 2.0 Introduction 24 2.1 Advertising Industiy in Ireland 24 2.2.1 The Regulation of Advertising In Ireland 25 2.2.2 Fear Appeals in Irish Advertising 25 2.2.3 Legislation Governing Alcohol Advertising in Ireland 26 2.2.4 Advertising Expenditures in Ireland 26 2.2 The Irish Television Industiy in Ireland 28 2.2 Competition in the Industiy 29 2.3 The Alcohol Industry in Ireland 30 2.3.1 Drinking Patterns in Ireland 31 2.4 Drink Driving in Ireland 32 2.4.1 The national Safety Council 2.4.2 Shame Advertisement 33 33 2.5 Conclusion Chapter Three Research Methodology 3.0 Introduction to methodology 37 3.1 Research Question and Objectives 38 3.2 Nature of the Research 39 3.2.1 Exploratory Research 3 .3 Research Designs 39 39 3.3.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Research 39 3.3.2 Qualitative Research 41 3.3.3 Evaluation of Qualitative Research 41 3.4 Chosen Form of Data Collection 41 3.4.1 Secondary Research Data 42 3.4.2 Primary Research 43 3.4.3 Evaluation of Focus Groups 44 v 3.4.3 Pre Data Detection Selection 45 3.4.4 Facilitators Role in the Focus Group 46 3 .4 .5 Location of Focus Group 47 3.4 .6 Length of Focus Group 47 3.4.7 Materials Used in Focus Group 47 3.4.8 Recording the Focus Group 48 3 .5 The Sampling Process 49 3.5.1 Defining the Population 49 3.5.2 Determining the Sampling Frame 50 3.5.3 Selecting the Sampling Technique 50 3.5.4 Determining the Sampling Size 51 3.5.5 The Respondents 51 3.6 Data Analysis 52 3.7 Presenting the Findings 53 3 .8 Conclusion 54 Chapter Four Research Analysis and Findings \ 4.0 Introduction 57 4.1 Emergent Themes from the Discussion 58 4.1.1 Themes in Relation to the Research Objective 158 4.1.2 Fear 58 4.1.3 Recognition of Emotions 59 4.1.4 Awareness 60 4.1.5 Reactions to Fear 60 4.1.6 Channel Switching 62 4.1.7 Plays in your Mind 62 4.1.8 Male Drivers 63 4.1.9 Penalty Points 64 4.1.10 Sound Effects and Theme Music 65 4.1.11 Realism 66 4.1.12 Relevance 4.2 Conclusion 67 69 Chapter Five Conclusions and Recommendation 5.0 Introduction 72 5.2 Recommendations for Future Study 74 5.3 Limitations of the Research 75 5.4 Final Conclusion 76 Bibliography 77 Appendix Abstract This dissertation qualitatively examines emotional appeals in advertisements. Fear appeal has been chosen as the context to be researched. It is thought by the author the emotional appeals, particularly fear appeals, hold many interesting areas that warrant exploration. The relevance of fear appeals in Ireland today, in relation to the National Safety Councils road safety campaigns, has been chosen as the basis of this research study. Chapter One: This chapter examines theory behind the use of emotional appeals, in particularly fear appeals. Gaining an insight into this area provides the author with a foundation for understanding the process of persuasive advertising. Chapter Two: The objective of this chapter is to gain an insight into the advertising industry in Ireland, through the use of the Irish television media. Chapter Three: This chapter describes how the research is designed and carried out. The objectives are also set out and the rationale behind them is explained. Chapter Four: The results o f the Research will be interpreted in tlus chapter through content analysis, which is grouping similar themes together. Chapter Five: Following on from the analysis and interpretations of the previous chapter, the researcher draws conclusions on the important information obtained. Recommendations for further study are outlined, along with ttfe limitations present in this research study. I would like to dedicate this to my Mum and Dad a token of my appreciation for all their love and support throughout the years Chapter One Literature Review National College Ireland Literature Review 1.0 Introduction Theory surrounding fear appeals in advertising is discussed throughout this chapter in order to gain a comprehensive knowledge into how those appeals can proceed in changing consumers’ attitudes and behaviours. The aim of the literature review is to gain a better insight and understanding into how advertising affects individuals, both directly and indirectly. Advertisers seek to persuade consumers to change their attitudes and behaviours by using a persuasive message content such as emotional appeals. 1.2 Advertising In a competitive market many firms seek to differentiate their offerings through communication and promotional techniques. The various promotional options available to the marketer are referred to as the promotional mix, Rogan (2000). According to Jobber (2001), there are five major elements of the promotional mix. These include advertising, personal selling, direct marketing, sales promotion and publicity. Kolter and Armstrong (2004) also include sponsorship as an important element. A key marketing decision as indicated by Rogan (2000) is the selection or combination o f these components needed to communicate to the target audience. Rogan (2000) continues by pointing out that although there has been an increase in sales promotion techniques with a greater use of direct mailing and sponsorship “ ...advertising generally remains the most important communication medium for many companies”. A simple but precise definition of advertising is “ ...the action of calling something to the attention o f the public, especially by paid announcements”, Hart (1995). Wells et al (2003) also define advertising in similar terms as a “ ... paid non personal communication from an identified sponsor using mass media to persuade or influence an audience”. Advertising includes such mediums as press, publications, posters, radio, television, cinema and outdoor advertising. 2 Literature Review An advertising objective, indicated by Kolter and Armstrong (2004), is a particular communication mission to be accomplished with a specified target audience at a relevant time, Kolter and Armstrong (2004). Generally, advertising messages can be classified by their purpose, which can be “to inform or persuade”, Kolter and Armstrong (2004). Informative advertisements are those that elicit information about a product in order to inform the consumer. Persuasive advertisements try to persuade consumers to buy the product, usually by comparison with other brands. 1.3 Changing Attitudes and Behaviours “Marketers goal is to persuade people by changing pre-existing attitudes and beliefs to influence behaviour”, Mowen (1995). The word attitude is derived from the Latin word “aptus” meaning “fitness” or “adaptedness”, Mowen (1995). By the end of the eighteenth century “Charles Darwin used the,word in a biological sense as a physical expression of an emotion”, Mowen (1995). Researchers now a days tend to associate “ ...attitudes with physiological tendencies .to approach or avoid something”, Mowen (1995). In order to provide a definition for the term attitude, Petty and Cacioppo (1981:), as cited in Clark et al (1994), define it as “ ... a general and enduring (consistent over time) negative or positive evaluation of a person, object or issue”. Assel (1998) also provides a similar explanation of attitudes as “... learned predispositions to respond to an object or class of objects in a consistently favourable or unfavourable way”. There are three components of attitudes put forward by Assel (1998), which are the “cognitive component (thinking), the affective component (feeling) and the conative component (behavioural)”. Shiffrnan and Kanuk (2000:223) classify these three components as the TriComponent Attitude Model. Cognitive Component: This is the thinking element of attitudes and rests on the characteristics, which consumers believe to assign to a brand. Beliefs are “multi dimensional” as they represent the consumers perceived attributes to a brand, Assel (1998). 3 Literature Review Affective Component: This represents the feeling element of attitudes and is the consumers overall evaluation of the brand. Evaluation is the key concept of attitudes as it summarises consumer’s tendencies to be favourable or unfavourable to a brand. Assel (1998) states that beliefs influence evaluations and evaluations influence the intention to consume. Behavioural Component: This signifies consumer’s reactions or behaviour towards a brand and is generally measured by their intention to buy, Assel (1998). Marketers can ultimately appeal to the behavioural component of attitudes with out influencing either beliefs or evaluations, Assel (1998). Mowen (1995) suggests that firstly it is necessary to change consumer’s beliefs in order to influence behaviour. The persuasive communication process appears capable o f influencing attitude changes among consumers, Loudon and Della Bitta (1993). Persuasion is defined by Mowen (1995) “ ... as the explicit attempt to influence beliefs and attitudes”. Mowen (1995) suggests that the process through which persuasion occurs is whether it takes place un d er high or low involvement conditions. The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) demonstrates the decision-making path to belief, attitude and behaviour change, Mowen (1995). The persuasion process begins when the consumer receives a communication message. The message is processed by the consumer in terms of the nature and content of the message and the consumer’s perceived relevance in relation to low or high involvement. Depending upon the degree of involvement that consumers experience with the product, belief and attitude changes can occur in two ways: the central route and the peripheral route. 4 Literature Review Figurel .1 The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) Peripheral Route Source; Mowen (1995) Central Route: Changes in attitude and beliefs by means of the central route come ^ about when the consumer concentrates carefully on the message. “The person diligently considers the communication and compares it to his or her own attitudinal position”, Mowen (1995). As the amount of involvement in the decision making process increases, consumers tend to engage in problem solving activities, Solomon (1999). An ability to process the information generates cognitive responses, Mowen (1995). The degree to which these cognitive responses are encouraging to the message can change consumer beliefs, Mowen (1995). Once beliefs have been changed, consumers may also change attitudes. Mowen (1995) suggests that belief and attitude change, which occur through the central route, are relatively enduring and predictive of behaviour”. Peripheral Route: Changes in attitudes in the peripheral route occur differently as the consumer engages in low involvement information processing. The consumer is not motivated to involve themselves in extensive problem solving, Solomon (1999). Peripheral indicators are employed to determine whether to accept or reject the message, such as attractiveness or positive or negative stimuli, Mowen (1995). In these 5 v ||. Literature Review circumstances, beliefs may be formed or changed, behaviour is modified and finally attitude formation can occur. Loudon and Della Bitta (1993) advocate that it is reasonable for marketers to use emotional appeals in their attempts to persuade consumers. He maintains that emotional appeals are potentially usefully in influencing consumers’ attitudes and/or behaviour towards the advertised brand. Burke and Edell (1989) propose that emotions educed by advertisements can influence and impact on attitudes. They continue by explaining that emotional feelings are linked directly to the advertisements characteristics, brand evaluations and attitudes. The principal means available to marketers for influencing attitude change is the design and implementation o f persuasive communication messages, Loudon and Della Bitta (1993). 1.3 Emotional Appeals in Advertisements “An aspect of advertising that is particularly unique is the mood state associated with the context. Such states are very important to advertisers because feelings are intrinsically tied to the effectiveness of advertisements”, Loudon and Della Bitta (1993). As quoted by Rogan (2000:89) “ ... advertising practitioners use a host of credible strategies to induce moods that facilitate the achievement of their strategic goals”. Wells et al, (2003) argue that “...advertisers that touch people’s emotions with their messages have a greater success in getting consumers to remember that message”. The message should get attention, hold interest, arouse desire and obtain action, Wells et al (2003). According to Milner, (1995) advertising objectives are often classified under two headings: to inform and to persuade. Therefore, there are two main types of message appeals: rational and emotional. Rational appeals are “message appeals that relate to the audience’s self interest and show that the product will produce the claimed benefits”, Kolter et al (2002). “These types of appeals focus on the consumers practical, functional or utilitarian need for the 6 Literature Review product or service and/or specific reasons for owning a particular brand”, Tristate.edu (2004) “Persuasive rational appeals often contain factual information, which the consumer considers before making a purchasing decision”, Shiftman and Kanuk (2000:223). Gore et al, (1998) suggest “ ...that in many instances recipients are unable or unmotivated to effectively process rational appeals. It is in such instances that emotional persuasive appeals maybe found to be more effective”. In an effort to provide a definition of what an emotional appeal is Kolter, (2003) defines it as an . attempt to stir up either negative or positive emotions that can motivate a purchase or action”. Edell and Burke (1987) claim “ ...that all advertisements convey emotion, regardless of their intent to do so or not”. To strengthen this argument Zeitlin and Westwood, (1986) also believe that “every advertising communication evokes some emotion. But some advertisements evoke far more emotion than others”. As Edell and Staelin (1983), as cited in Zinn and Manfredo (2000) conclude that “rational appeals are objective statements of information that can be verified independently whereas emotional appeals tend to provide subjective information open to individual interpretation”. 1.3.1 Types of Emotion By their very nature, advertising messages exist to persuade consumers through whatever means possible, ciadvertising.org (2004). Zeitlin and Westwood (1986) state that “ ... an emotional tone can draw attention to a message, make it memorable, or even illustrate the benefit in action”. Through the different message tones available, advertisers seek to captivate the audience. Many theorists have categorised emotion in to different headings. Huang (1986) differentiates between basic and social emotions. In her article she defines basic emotions as being “... universal in all demographic groups” which include anger, love, fear, sadness and happiness. Similar to Zeitlin and Westwood (1986), Huang believes that it is from these basic emotions that social emotions develop. 7 Literature Review Zeitlin and Westwood (1986) distinguish between primary and secondary emotions. They identified eight primary emotions and claim that these are the essence of emotional existence”, Zeitlin and Westwood (1986:37). The eight primary emotions are anticipation, acceptance, surprise, joy, fear, anger, sadness and disgust. They believe that these eight emotions can be related to each other in some form or another. As they explain in their article, “disgust is somewhat related to anger and is functionally the opposite of acceptance”. To simplify this, Zeitlin and Westwood (1986) developed a circumplex to highlight their theory of relationships between the primary emotions. Figure: 1.2 The Eight Prim ary Emotions Source: Zeitlin & Westwood (1986.37) Zeitlin and Westwood (1986) declare that the eight emotions are rarely seen in their true existence. They believe that secondary emotions can be frequently observed and are a mixture o f two or more primary emotions. They provide an example of such an emotion as being: “alarm is a state of surprise mixed with fear”, Zeitlin and Westwood (1986:37) Another method, reported by Schwartz & Shaver (1987) is to categorising emotion in to positive and negative emotions. They developed this theory, which rests on a hierarchical table of emotional needs. Love and joy are the two main positive emotions of which arousal, longing, excitement and pleasure are the co ordinates. Similarly, 8 Literature Review irritation, disgust and anxiety are the subordinates of the two main negative emotions, which are anger and fear, Huang (1998). 1.3.2 Why Use Emotion in Advertisements Advertisers have to work harder to get their advertising messages through to consumers because of devises such as remote controls VCRs, DVDs and general advertising cutler. They are constantly looking for new ways to captivate the audience. “Increasingly advertisers try to grab the attention of viewers by provoking an emotional response”, Hyman and Tansey (1990). In their article Zinn and Manfredo (2000) detail that message appeals that are laded with emotion are more easily remembered than those message appeals that induce little emotion. To continue, Edell and Staelin (1983), as cited in Zinn and Manfredo (2000) theorise that information which can be easily remembered will influence behaviour more readily than information that is more difficult to remember. In the same article, Zinn and Manfredo (2000) point out that rational appeals sometimes only elicit thoughtful comparisons of arguments in the appeal to beliefs that the respondent already knows. “Emotional advertising has been shown to affect customers’ reactions to advertisements, to enhance their attention and to effect brand attitudes”, Mattila (1999). Zeitlin and Westwood (1986) believe that emotional appeals draw on our most basic human instincts. Literature Review 1.4 Introduction to Fear Appeals Generally, marketing communications attempt to inform consumers of the benefits of using a product or service yet, advertisements using fear appeals does the opposite as they inform consumers of the risks of using or not using a specific product, Meenaghan and O’ Sullivan (1995). Hymen and Tansey (1990), as cited in Latour and Snipes (1996) believe that the primary reason for the growth in fear appeal popularity is because “advertisers have found them to increase the interest and persuasiveness of individual ads”. Hymen and Tansey (1990) as cited in Latour and Snipes (1996) also noted that people exposed to ads which portrayed fear, could remember them much better than other “warm” or “upbeat” ads that had no emotional content. 1.4.1 Fear Appeals Fear appeals in messages attempt to persuade consumers to act in a desired manner by h exemplifying the terrible consequences of not acting in the recommended way, Bennett (1996). According to Latour and Snipes (1996) “a fear appeal is a type of psychoactive ^ ad which is capable of arousing fear in the viewer regarding the effect of the viewer’s ;^k sub optimal lifestyle”. Advertising messages that use fear appeals aim to stimulate pi anxiety or tension among an audience and are often referred to as “shock and scare tactics”, Witte (1994). Individual’s responses to fear appeals are related to the “ ...individuals’ opinion of the issue’s importance, their perceived likelihood that the negative outcome will occur and their belief that a change in behaviour would affect the feared outcome”, Witte and Allen (2000). Witte and Allen (2000) continue by stating that “fear as an appeal works best when you make people very afraid and then show them how to reduce that fear by doing what is recommended”. Glascoff (2000) states that “ ... the message needs to provide a meaningful threat and specific actions an individual can take to reduce the problem” in order for the appeal to be successful. Some researchers have discovered that invoking too much fear “touches off intense feelings o f anxiety” which causes people to avoid the advertisement altogether. 10 Literature Review However, Witte and Allen (2000) believe that fear appeals are most successful when they provide “high levels of threat and high levels of efficacy”, 1.4.2 Important Components of the Fear Appeal Process Witte (1994) identifies three main components of fear appeals: fear, threat and efficacy. Fear Fear is an actual emotional response that can induce changes in attitude or behaviour intentions and consumer actions, LaTour and Rotfeld (1997). It is related to other feelings such as fright, discomfort and disgust, Baltra, Myers and Aaker (1996). “Fear is a primitive instinct which can occasionally guide and activate human behaviour. It creates anxiety and tension, causing people to seek ways to reduce these feelings” LaTour and Zahra (1989). Threat “A threat is an external stimulus variable that exists whether the person knows it or not” Witte (1992). If an individual believes that a specific threat can exist, then the individual is “perceiving a threat”, Witte (1992). A threat is something which poses as a risk to an individual’s safety, Glascoff (2000). Perceived severity is the serious that an individual believes a threat to be, while perceived susceptibility is an individual’s belief that a threat is relevant to them, Witte (1992). Efficacy In this context, efficacy refers to how effective the respondent views the recommended response in preventing the proposed threat and self-efficacy is the respondents’ ability to carry out the recommended response, Rogers (1975) as cited in Witte (1992). Perceived self-efficacy is defined by Witte (1992) as the respondent’s belief in their own capability that they can perform the recommended response action. 11 Literature Review 1.4.3 Outcome Variables of Fear Appeals Witte (1992) states that the typical outcome in fear appeals is message acceptance, which she defines as attitude, intention or behavior change. Other outcomes can be defensive avoidance and reactance. Witte (1992) states that defensive avoidance is a provoked resistance to a message, which can take the form of denial or minimization of the threat exposure. People may defensively avoid a message by refusing to think about the threat or by looking away and being inattentive to the communication. Witte (1992) continues by explaining that reactance occurs when an individual believes that their free liberties are reduced and that the communication is trying to make the person change. 1.4.4. Physical versus Social Threats in Fear Appeals “Fear appeals highlight a fearfully situation that is likely to affect the recipients’ physical or social self’ LaTour and Zahra (1989). Agres et al (1990), researchers of fear appeals in advertising have investigated two types of threats to the receiver: physical and social threats. As stated in their research, Agres et al (1990) define a physical threat as a “fear that would include harm to the body” and a social threat as a “fear of disapproval by peers or other associates of some action or characteristic possessed by the receiver o f the message”. Schoenbachler and Whittier (1996) extend their definition of a physical threat to include a fear o f “the lack of personal security” and define a social threat as affecting the “individual’s social well being which could result in isolation or shame”. Traditionally, market research has focused on physical threats. However, as pointed out by Agres et al (1990) “the most common use of fear is social disapproval”. In a study carried out by R. Evans, R. Rozelle, T. Lasater, T. Dembroski, and B. Allen (1970) as cited in Agres et al (1990) it was concluded that “fear was more effective in persuading potential consumers when it dealt with social rather than physical threats”. However, various other studies carried out have produced contradictory results. 12 Literature Review Schoenbachler and Whittier (1996) point out that message’s containing physical threats were more effective than social threats. Schoenbachler and Whittier (1996) conclude that these conflicting results could be based on different characteristics o f the audiences. 1.4.5 Two different uses of Fear Appeals in Advertising LaTour and Zahra (1989) declare that marketers used fear appeals to stimulate interest in products and services. Fear appeals are most commonly used in the advertising of products, services or social causes, Witte and Allen (2000). The two main categories that use fear appeals are social marketing and product marketing. Anderson (1995) defines social marketing as “the application of commercial marketing technologies to the analysis, planning, execution and evaluation of programmes designed to influence the voluntary behaviour of target audiences in order to improve their personal welfare and that of society”. It is a marketing solution to social and health problems that encourages people to adopt certain behaviours that will enhance their own lives and those of others. Batra, Myers and Aaker (1996). Quite frequently the threats in such campaigns are related to ill health and death such as the spread of aids, stress, smoking and drink driving. Product marketing tries to encourage people to consume more by portraying the possible immediate benefits that can be gained from using a product, Batra, Myers and Aaker (1996). Fear can also be used in appealing to a social threat in the product marketing of such products as anti- wrinkling creams, toothpaste and mouth wash, deodorants and spot creams. 13 Literature Review 1.4.6 How Fear Appeal Works Advertising messages that use fear appeals aim to stimulate anxiety or tension among an audience and are often referred to as “shock and scare tactics”, Witte (1994). Many marketers rely on appeals to stimulate interest in their products and services. In their article, LaTour and Zahra (1989) provide three steps to creating this interest using fear appeals. Firstly, a fearfully situation is created causing the respondent to feel at risk, defenceless and vulnerable. Secondly, this fearful situation should be serious enough to warrant the attention of the respondents. Finally, a solution should be provided for the respondent to limit the fear of the threat. 1.4.7 Fear Appeal Models There are many different models that are used to describe the effectiveness of a.fear appeal threat. However, the most influential models are ‘The Parallel Response Model’ by Leventhal (1971) and Rogers (1975) ‘Protection Motivation Theory’. 1.4.8 The Parallel Process Model This model was developed by Howard Leventhal and focuses more on cognitive processes as opposed to emotional processes, Witte (1992). Leventhal’s model suggests that “a cognitive response, the belief that harm is likely to occur, is evoked in addition to the emotional response”, Baltra, Myers, Aaker (1996). Therefore, in the attempt to try and predict the reaction of the audience both responses need to be considered. The response that advertisers are seeking is to have the audience conform to the communication and change their attitudes or behaviours, Baltra, Myers and Aaker (1996). Leventhal argued that the cognitive response is responsible for accepting the fear appeals and the emotional response is responsible for the rejection of fear appeals, Baltra, Myers and Aaker (1996). He also argued, as cited in Witte (1992) that 14 Literature Review “protective adaptive behaviour stem from attempts to control the threat and not to control the fear”. Therefore, he concluded that if people thought about strategies to avert the threat, then they were engaging in a threat control process. In contrast if people focused on trying to control their fear, they were engaging in fear control process, Witte (1992). Conversely, the audience may avoid the advertisement and engage in defence processes and ignore the ad, Witte (1992). 1.4.9 Protection Motivation Theory According to this theory developed by Rogers an advertisement engaging in fear appeal will have four processes that will influence how an individual will respond to a threat. These are the severity of the threat, the probability that the threat is likely to occur, the purposed behavioural changes or actions which will remove the threat, “the coping response”, and the capability of the audience to carry out the purpose behaviour change, Loudon and Della Bitta (1993:469). The individual’s evaluation of these factors will lead to protection motivation . behaviours. This theory designs messages to motivate individuals to respond to a threatening situation, Loudon and Della Bitta (1993). Maximum protection motivation occurs when each of these variable are at high levels, Witte (1994). y 1.4.10 Segmentation Market segmentation is one of the key concepts of marketing. Burnett and Oliver (1979) suggest that ‘‘the application of market segmentation to the persuasive effects o f fear may be a reasonable strategy”. Further support to the segmentation strategy is that pervious research on fear appeals included three of the basic marketing segmentation approaches which are personality, usage, and socio-economic segmentation, Burnett and Oliver (1979). “Segmentation variables when properly applied would profitably divide a market into homogeneous measurable segments that are accessible to promotional efforts”, Frank and Rao (1971), as cited in Burnett and Oliver (1979). However, it is important to note that “ ...the same fear appeal may produce different perceptions on different people”, Witte (1994). 15 Literature Review This is particularly true to say in regards to personality variables. Self-esteem has received a lot o f attention in fear research. Niles (1964), as cited in Burnett and Oliver (1979) discovered that the higher the level of fear intensity among medium to high self-esteemed subjects the stronger their coping responses were to the threat but among lower self-esteem subjects, their coping responses diminished. Low self-esteem subjects whom are more susceptible to angst or those that feel vulnerable are more likely to respond to a fear appeal message positively, in order to avoid the threat, Burnett and Oliver (1979). Socio-economic variables have also been used in the segmentation process. A variety of different factors are included in this wide variable, which include, sex, age, and education, Higbee (1969) as cited in Burnett and Oliver (1979). According to Quinn, Meenaghan and Brannick (1992) females are more likely to response positively to a fear appeal advertisements than males. This proposal came about as they believe that females are more emotionally responsive than males. Younger people rather than older people and less educated rather than higher educated people are found to accept and respond better to fear appeal messages, Quinn, Meenaghan and Brannick (1992), Burnett and Oliver (1979). 1.4.11 Factors to Consider when using Fear Appeals In addition to the regular factors involved in any advertising campaign, Meenaghan and O’Sullivan (1995) out line several considerations that need to be considered before introducing fear appeals to an advertisement. These include; * The Level o f Fear * Source Credibility * Type o f Fear * Interest value of the Communication * Relevance * Ethics 16 Literature Review The level of Fear: One of the most important considerations, which an advertiser must consider is the severity o f the threat for the specific situation. This is especially true when using a fear appeal in a situation which fear has not been used before, Meenaghan and O’Sullivan (1995). A common consideration is the insurance that the correct amount of fear, not too much and not too little, is used in the advertisement at targeting the correct audience, Meenaghan and O’Sullivan (1995). However, Glascoff (2000) believes that “the stronger the fear appeal, the greater attitude, intention and behaviour changes”. Source Credibility: Quinn, Meenaghan and Brannick (1992) point out that an important factor in determining the success of a fear appeal message is how the respondents perceive the credibility o f a threat. Meenaghan and O’Sullivan (1995) believe that “ ...subjects exposed to a strong fear communication, attributed to a high credible source, would demonstrate the greatest shift toward the position advocated in the persuasive communication”. Type of Fear: Advertisers appeal traditionally to consumers’ physical or social fear. Products such as mouthwash or deodorants describe the consequences of social disapproval if one fails to use them, Meenaghan and O’ Sullivan (1995). Contrary to social threat, a physical threat appeals to the physical consequences of doing or*not doing an action, for example not wearing a seatbelt. Powell and Miller (1967) as cited in Meenaghan and O ’ Sullivan (1995) “found that social disapproval was substantially more effective in changing attitudes than was social approval”. Interest Value o f Communication: In a study carried out by Miniard, Lord, Bhatta, Dickson and Unnava (1991), as cited in Zinn and Manfredo (2000) they accepted that fear appeals facilitated persuasion when subjects believed that the message content was relevant to them but failed when the subjects believed it to be irrelevant. Communicators may not succeed in influencing the audience if the message lacks sufficient interest, Meenaghan and O’ Sullivan (1995). Relevance: Bennett (1996) suggests that the advertisement must be relevant to the target audience. It has been suggested by Leventhal and Watts (1966), as cited in 17 Literature Review Meenaghan and O’Sullivan (1995) that the higher the relevance of a presented threat to a target audience is, the greater the fear is experienced. Ethics: A persistent ethical concern is the level of fear used in communication messages. However, Ray and Wilkie (1970), as cited in Meenaghan and O’Sullivan (1995) concluded that the level of fear that is effective in a successful advertisement is not high enough to be legally unethical. However, some fear appeal advertisements can expose people to unpleasant images and therefore can be viewed as an unethical. One of the major risks/disadvantages of any medium of advertising, but especially television, is that although it may reach a huge audience it may not reach the intended audience. Therefore, it is important to consider the outside audience of your target audience and the “subsequent possible negative social consequences” with reference to fear appeals, Snipes, Latour and Bliss (1999). 1.5 Conclusion This chapter has addressed the emotional content of advertising messages, particularly a fear content, in order to gain an understanding into how fear appeals function. Advertising in general was explained and changes it attitudes and behaviours was also examined, in order to gain an insight into the persuasive role of marketers. The literature reviewed in this chapter is structural evidence on which the objectives and analysis o f this research study will be based on. The following chapter on the Irish advertising industry is address so that the persuasive message contents can be put into context. 18 Literature Review References Agres, J.S., Edell. JA ., Dubitsky, T.M., (1990) Emotion in Advertising: Theoretical and Practical Explorations, Quorum Books, NY Anderson, A.R., (1995) Marketing Social Change: Changing Behaviour to Promote Health Social Development and the Environment, Jossey- Bass Publications, USA Assel, H., (1998) Consumer Behaviour and Marketing Action, 6th Ed, South Western College Publishing Batra, R., Myers, J.G., & Aaker, D A ., (1996) Advertising Management, 5th Edition, New Jersey, Prentice Hall Bennett, R., (1996) “Effects o f Horrific Fear Appeals on Public Attitudes Towards AIDS”, International Journal o f Advertising, Vol. 15, pp. 183-202 Burnett, J. J., Oliver, R. L., (1979) “Fear Appeal Effects in the Field: A Segmentation Approach, Journal o f Marketing Research, Vol. XVI, May, pp. 181-190 r ,s; •s- *1 Clark, E., M., Brock, T., C., Stewart, D., W., (1994) Attention, Attitude and Effect in Response to Advertising, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers Della Bitta, A., Loudon, D., L., (1993) Consumer Behaviour, 4th Ed, Me Graw-Hill Inc Domegan, C., Fleming, D., (2003) Marketing Research In Ireland Theory and Practice, 2nd Ed, Gill and Macmillan Ltd Glascoff, D.W., (2000) “Fear Appeals, Quality Perceptions and 'E-health’ Marketing”, Marketing Health Services, Vol. 20, Issue 4, pp. 35-37 Gore, P., Madhaven, S., Curry, D., McClurg, G., (1998) “Persuasive Messages” Marketing Health Services, Chicago, Vol. 18, issue 4 19 Literature Review Gore, P., Madhaven, S., Huang, M.H., (1998), “Exploring a new typology of advertising appeals: Basic versus social, emotional advertising in a global setting”. International Journal o f Advertising, Vol. 17 Hart, N., (1995) The Practice of Advertising, 4th Ed, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford Huang, M.H., (1998), “Exploring a New Typology of Advertising Appeals: Basic Versus Social, Emotional Advertising in a Global Setting”, International Journal o f Advertising, Vol. 17 Hyman, M.R., Tansey, R.T., (1990) “The Ethics of Psychoactive Ads”, Journal o f Ethics j Jobber, D., (2001) Principles and Practice of Marketing, 3rd Ed, Me Graw-hill Publishing Company Kolter, P., (2003) Marketing Management, 11th Ed International, Prentice Hall Kolter, P., Armstrong, G., Saunders, J., Wong, V., (2002) Principles of Advertising, 3rd Ed, Prentice Hall LaTour, M.S., Rotfeld, H.J., (1997) “There are threats and (maybe) Fear-Caused Arousal: Theory and Confusions of Appeals to Fear and Fear Arousal Itself’, Journal o f Advertising, Vol. XXVI, autumn Latour, M.S., Snipes, R.L., (1996) “Don’t be afraid to use Fear Appeals: An experimental study”, Journal o f Advertising Research, Vol. 36, pp. 59-68 LaTour, M.S., Zahra, S. A., (1989) “Fear Appeals as Advertising Strategy, Should They be Used”, Journal o f Consumer Marketing, Vol. 6, No.2, pp. 61-70 Loudon, D. L., Della Bitta, A. J. (1993) Consumer Behaviour, 4th Ed, Me Graw-Hill Inc 20 Literature Review Mattila, A.S., (1999) “Do emotional Appeals Work for services?”, International Journal o f Service Industry Management, Vol. 10. No.3 Meenaghan, T., O’Sullivan, P., (1995) Marketing Communications in Ireland, Oak Tree Press, Dublin Milner, D., (1995) Success in Advertising and Promotion, Publishers John Murray, London, p. 54 Mitchell, A. A., (1993) Advertising Exposure, Memory and Choice, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publisher, New Jersey Mowen, J. C., (1995) Consumer Behaviour, 4th Ed, Prentice Hall International, New Jersey Quinn, V., Meenaghan, T., Brannick, T., (1992) “Fear Appeals: Segmentation is the Way to go”, International Journal o f Advertisings Vol. 11, pp.355-366 Rogan, D., (2000) Marketing: An Introduction for Irish Students, Gill and Macmillan, Dublin Schoenbachler, D. D., Whittier, T.E., (1996) “Adolescent processing of Social and Physical Threat Communications”, Journal o f Advertising, Vol.25, No. 4, pp.37-54 Snipes, R.L., Latour, M., Bliss, S.J., (1999) “A model of the effects of self efficacy on the perceived ethically and performance of fear appeals in advertising”, Journal o f Business Ethics, Vol. 19, pp 273-285 Solomon, M., R., (1999) Consumer Behaviour, 4th Ed, Prentice Hall International, New Jersey 21 Literature Review Wells, Burnett, Moriarty (2003) Advertising, Principles and Practice, 6th Edition, Prentice Hall International 6th edition, 2003 Witte, K., (1992) “ Putting the Fear Back into Fear Appeals: The Extended Parallel Process Model”, Communication Monographs, December, Vol. 59, pp. 329-349 Witte, K., (1994) “Fear Control and Danger Control: A Test of the extended Parallel process Model”, Communication Monographs, Vol. 61, pp. 113-134 Witte, K., Allen, M., (2000) “A Meta-Analysis of fear Appeals: Implications for Effective Public Health Campaigns”, Marketing Health Services, Vol. 20, issue 4, pp.35-37 Zeitlin, D.M., Westwood, R.A., (1986), “Measuring Emotional Response” Journal o f Advertising Research, October/November. Zinn, H., C., Manfredo, M., J., (2000) “An Experimental Test of Rational and Emotional Appeals about a Recreational Issue”, Leisure Science, July, Vol. 22, issue 3, pp. 183-195 Electronic Sources http://www.ciadvertising.org/studies/student/98_fall/theory/weirtz/Emotion.htm http://www.tristate.edu/faculty/herbig/imc09.htm 22 Chapter Two Advertising Industry In Ireland 1 National College0/" Ireland Advertising Industry in Ireland 2.0 Introduction The development o f the Irish media has been tied up with the emergence of the nation state and its identity. The media has played a major part in the modernisation of Irish society and culture, specifically the move from “ ...a relatively homogenous closed Catholic culture” to “ .. an open, pluralist culture” of today, Tovey and Share (2000). The first part o f this chapter examines the complexity o f the Irish media from an advertising point of view. The second part uncovers the television industry in Ireland as it is through this source, which the author shall test a set of advertisements that are driven by fear, using a medium that is national. The third part exposes the alcohol and drink driving behaviour in Ireland today. 2.1 Advertising Industry in Ireland In the last decade, media communications in Ireland have been under severe strain, which has lend to a change in marketers advertising priorities. Companies are now more concerned with the planning and buying of their media campaigns as it has been recognised in Ireland that expenditure on such campaigns is often the single biggest financial investment they make, Meenaghan and O’ Sullivan (1995). Media rates have escalated rapidly in recent years, as media supply cannot meet advertisers’ demands. Due to Irelands increased wealth, more goods and services are being advertised to the public, which is driving up the cost, iapi.ie (2004). Advertisers have found it extremely difficult to maintain traditional exposure levels compared to competitors. In the last decade, the Irish media has expanded considerably. However, it has experienced a measurable decline in audience levels across all major sectors. The print sector remains under severe strain from the British press and technology advances have allowed the audience to control the television sector with the use of remote controls and DVD recorders, Meenaghan and O’ Sullivan (1995). The republic o f Ireland has its own unique marketing conditions, which shape the manner in which Irish advertising campaigns are planned and executed. 24 Advertising Industry in Ireland 2.2.1 The Regulation of Advertising in Ireland EU directives, government codes of practice and the Advertising Standards Authority for Ireland, ASAI, regulate the advertising industry in Ireland. The ASAI is an independent self-regulated body, which exists to “Promote and enforce throughout Ireland the highest standards of advertising in all media o f communication so as to ensure, in co-operation with all concerned, that no advertising contravenes or offends against these standards having regard inter-alia to the code of advertising standards in Ireland”, asai.ie (2004). The ASAI is financed entirely by the advertising industry of Ireland. The code deals with ensuring that all advertisements and promotions are “legal, decent, honest and truthful”, asai.ie (2004). The rules are contained in the Code of Advertising Standards and the Code o f Sales Promotion Practice, which are drawn up by the ASAI after consultation with Government Departments and consumer representatives, asai.ie (2004). As detailed in the code, the fundamentally quality o f good advertising is that: • Advertisements should be legal, decent, honest and truthful. • Advertisements should be adapted to the principles of fair competition. • Advertisements should be responsibly produced for the consumer and for society. Source: aeforum.org 2.2.2 Fear Appeals in Irish Advertising Gillette was the first brand to introduce fear appeals in to advertising. Fear appeals in the Irish advertising industry have been heavily regulated but they are still used extensively throughout. Rule 2.26 in the Advertising Standards Authority of Ireland restricts the use o f fear appeals in Ireland. The rule states: 25 Advertising Industry in Ireland An advertisement should not cause fear or distress without good reason such as the encouragement of prudent behaviour or the discouragement of dangerous or ill-advised actions. In such cases the fear aroused should not be disproportionate to the risk. Asai.ie (2004) 2.2.3. Legislation Governing Alcohol Advertising in Ireland The ASAI, among other things, outlines codes for advertising that relate specifically to that of alcoholic drinks. These are contained in Section 6 of the code and state that: • Alcohol advertisements should not be targeted at minors • All persons appearing in alcohol advertisements should be over 25 years • Alcohol advertisements should not encourage young people to drink nor contain material that would do so (aeforum, 2004) See Appendix C, for section 6 of code in full 2.2.4 Advertising Expenditure in Ireland According to the BASE report for January-September 2003, the Irish Government spent approximately €23 million on advertisements, while Diageo followed in second place having spent €13 million during the same period. 26 Advertising Industry in Ireland Figure : 2.1 Top 10 Advertisers Jan-Sept 2003 € millions 25 20 15 10 <n o c0 o> oa. 8. ® ”o SI ° S = o E Q q CJ m r a <o »< i _ cm O S£ tON£o o- SO O o£ Q " 5 2 , ^ 0 “ r o o (/> LU T3 0- O ^ >° Source: 1AP1, base.ie Base advertising expenditure figures are calculated at rate card costs rather than actual expenditure. These figures do not include advertising on UK media sources, i.e. UTV, which can also be used to target Irish audiences. The top ten suppliers of those advertisements were reported by BASE in the same report also. Figure: 2.2 Top 10 Suppliers Jan-Sept 2003 € millions 100 c 80 60 f f 40 t ** o £ HI \± Ql K © “O c li V) o £ P x; (/) u pers TV 3 20 C TS c (V o Q. ‘5> (0 o on £ © Z C © o O 2 O 2 >, ®.E o ■o 0 £ c < 3 1 -o § s 2 o LU 3 CL X « -g ^ 1 “ H 0£ Source: 1AP1, base.ie 27 Advertising Industry in Ireland 2.2The Irish Television Industry TV has the great advantage of being able to communicate moving colour pictures and sound together - which is pretty much the closest that advertising media can get to a real salesman at your front door”, Berry (1998). A new era in Irish broadcasting began at 7pm on New Years Eve 1961, as Telefis Eireann (State-sponsored body) commenced transmission, after nearly five years of debates and controversy over the role that television should play in Irish society, Me Loone and Mac Mahon (1984). Previous to this however, it was possible for those living on the East coast to pick up British TV transmitting signals, Tovey and Share (2000). RTE was established under the Broadcasting Act I960, which placed the responsibility o f radio and television broadcasting in the hands o f the Irish nation. The first colour transmission from RTE 1 was on St Patrick’s Day 1971. In the years that followed this, the national station had an immeasurable impact and influence, on virtually every aspect of Irish lives. Television played an important part in developing and challenging traditional cultural forms within Ireland. “It was also instrumental in bringing about the gradual decline in the power and authority of the Catholic Church”, Tovey and Perry (2000). It became a sign of development and modernisation for Ireland. The new service quickly became established and remains today, an instrument of education as well as a source of information and entertainment. Since 1961, RTE 1 has survived and thrived in an increasingly competitive environment. During the 80’s, the Irish government had to overcome an increasing problem, that 66% of Irish homes were receiving quality signals from Britain, resulting in a decline of advertising revenue, Me Loone and Mac Mahon, (1984). Irelands second channel RTE 2, now Network 2, began transmission in 1978. Its propose was to extend the choice of programming, countrywide, from just RTE 1. TnaG was launched in 1994and re-branded TG4 in 1996. Its function is to present the Irish people with a TV station in the native Irish language. TV3 is Irelands first 28 Advertising Industry in Ireland independent television station and was launched in direct competition with RTE in 1998. TV3 has been judged as the most successful television network launched in Europe in the last ten years, TV3.ie (2004) 2.2 Competition in the Industry Over the past decade, the television industry has been transformed significantly in Ireland. Cable and satellite homes have increased due to digital channels. Sky digital was launched in 2000 and was the first digital service in Ireland offering a multitude of channels. (NTL then launched “Go Digital” in 2001.) Nevertheless, even with a rapid popularity growth for digital and TV3, RTE still remains the most viewed channel in the Republic of Ireland, with a percentage increase of adult viewing from 29.1% in 2002, to 33.2% in 2003, medialive.ie (2003). TV3 has a yearly increase of viewers and in 2003 attracted 13.2% of adult viewing, medialive.ie (2003). In 2003,Ulster Television was received by 9.1% of Irish homes, medialive.ie (2003). For this reason, advertisers in the Republic use UTV to reach their target audience in the south. Advertising is not available however on BBC1, 2 or Channel 4. In recent years there has been a major increase in the commercial minutes available on television to Irish advertisers. TV3, Skyl, and Sky News carry 9 minutes per hour. RTE and Network 2 carry 6 minutes. A report published by Fair brother Media Company in March 2001 stated that: TV3 sold 96% of their commercial airtime in 2000 RTE sold 81% and NT2 sold 69% o f their commercial airtime. This clearly highlights that RTE is under increased pressure from its rival station, TV3, with regards to competition for advertising. TV3 pays an annual rental to RTE for the use o f its transmission system. 29 Advertising Industry in Ireland Audience levels on television have also been under pressure as the viewing public become less passive and tolerant of the traditional programming fare. This is borne out by the increasing number of media studies that suggest that the television set is playing a less intrusive part in peoples lives, Meenaghan and O’ Sullivan (1995). A major reality affecting the television industry is the abundance of technology in the sector. For many years, Irish television and video ownership levels were much lower than neighbouring countries. However, the Central Statistics Office in Ireland, for 1999/2000, reported that almost 99% of households had a television. A substantial increase from 28% to 49% was recorded in the percentage of households with two or more TV sets and 85% had video recorders. It was also noted by the CSO, that 90% of Irish homes now have a remote control for their televisions, cso.ie (2004) In television, in addition to basic prime time and afternoon segments, there is now breakfast time, morning time and nighttime segments which have developed in line with the extension o f broad casting hours. Prices vary for the same television spot or press space as audiences viewing, reading and listening habits fluctuate from one day to the next. 2.3 The Alcohol Industry in Ireland The role o f alcohol in Irish society has come under increased scrutiny recently. “During the last decade, the consumption of alcohol has risen dramatically in Ireland with Irish adults currently among the highest consumers in Europe, at 14.2 litres per adult”, STFA.ie (2002). Society has paved the way for an increase in youth and female drinking habits, which are associated with this increase in alcohol consumption. Several studies carried out have revealed that a high level of drinking in Ireland is linked with “alcohol-related mortality”, Hope and Ramstedt (2002) e.g., liver failure, accidents and murder. 30 Advertising Industry in Ireland The study carried out by Hope and Ramstedt (2002) in Ireland, uncovered evidence that highlights that alcohol consumption diminishes with age. It also exposed the fact that, the highest consumption was to be found among those aged between 18-29 years. Figure 2.3 Alcohol Consumption in Litres of Pure Alcohol Beer Cider/Perry Spirits RTDs Wine Total 2003 23 , 232,005 3 , 115,099 7 , 302,448 524,030 7 , 277,435 41,451,018 2002 23 , 818,149 3 , 080,640 9 , 196,656 594,599 6 , 741,550 43,431,594 2001 23 , 935,340 3 , 471,853 8 , 918,559 412,451 5 , 564,707 42,302,911 2000 23 , 840,483 3 , 131,687 8 ,454,470 523,762 5 , 316,544 41,266,947 1999 24 , 023,928 2 ,703,062 7 ,847,469 179,013 4 ,669,241 39,422,713 1998 23 , 581,051 2 ,316,273 6 ,848,124 150,860 4 , 217,152 37,113,459 (meas.ie, 2004) 2.3.1 Drinking Patterns in Ireland Further investigations by Hope and Ramstedt (2002) uncovered that a minority of people in Ireland drink on a daily bases, only 1.6% of males and 0.2% of females. The following graph represents the drinking patterns in percentages among males and females in Ireland, aged between 18-64 years. Figure 2.4 Drinking patterns among males and females in Ireland, aged between 18-64 years. (Hope and Ramstedt, 2002) Drinking Drink at Binge drink Mean everyday % least once at least drinking a week % once a occasions week past 12 months Mean Binge drinking occasions past 12 months Advertising Industry in Ireland “The tendency to drink a lot of alcohol on one occasion, referred to as binge drinking, is strikingly common in Ireland”, Hope and Ramstedt (2002). Their study also reported an overall finding that unfavourable consequences linked with heavy drinking occasions were most common in Ireland, e.g. fights, accidents and regrettable behaviour. In regard to those surveyed by Hope and Ramstedt (2002) 6.3% of males and 2.4% o f females had the experience of having been in an accident. 11.5% of males also admitted to have got into a fights. However, in recent weeks and with the contribution of the newly applied no smoking ban in the work place, it has been recorded that there is a 30% decrease in pub alcohol sales. This is off set by the 8 % increase in off licence sales, RTE News (2004). 2.4 Drink Driving in Ireland According to the Garda Siochana Annual Report 2002, 13,441 arrests were made in 2002 for drink driving offences. The graph below supplied by the Gardai, clearly shows a yearly increase in the enforcement of the drink driving legislation. Figure 2.5 Enforcement Of Drunk Driving Legislation 1995 - 2002 14000 12841 11411 12000 10000 8000 6000 - 4984— 4000 2000 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 (Garda Siochana Annual Report 2002) 32 Advertising Industry in Ireland In the following graph it specifies the gender of those persons convicted of drink driving offences for the same year. Drink driving is predominantly a male problem. Men cause nine out of ten alcohol related road crashes and almost two thirds of these are caused by the 17-34 age bracket, www.nsc.ie (2004). Figure. 2.5 Gender Of Persons Convicted Of Drink Driving Offences 10% □ Male □ Female 90% (Garda Siochana Annual Report 2002) 2.4.1The National Safety Council The National Safety Council promotes Road Safety and Fire Safety in Ireland. It was established in 1987. The Council is funded by grants from the Department of Transport, fund support from the Irish Insurance Federation and sponsorships, penalty points, ie (2004). The Council are active in educational programmes, media campaigns and PR activities. With the aid of their promotional activities, the NSC try to influence public attitude and behaviour in relation to Road and Fire Safety issues, www.penaltypoints.ie (2004). 2,4.2 Shame Advertisement This commercial highlights the possible consequences of drink driving. The advertisement graphically depicts the shame involved in drink driving as a young innocent boy is killed as a result of one mans negligence. The marketing strategy was 33 Advertising Industry in Ireland to move drink driving from a position of social stigma to one of personal ‘SHAME’. The NSC claim that SHAME as a concept and emotion spans every aspect of drink driving. 2.5 Conclusion This chapter has examined the Irish advertising industry in Ireland in order to gain a practical background knowledge into how the industry is formed. The author has also addressed the alcohol industry and the drink driving behaviour in Ireland, as its from these two segments that the need for fear appeal advertisements has arisen, in relation to road safety. In the following chapter, the research methodology is explained, the research question formed and the objective of this research study listed. 34 Advertising Industry in Ireland References Berry, M., (1998) The New Integrated Direct Marketing, Gower Publishing Ltd Meenaghan, T., O’ Sullivan, P., (1995) Marketing Communications in Ireland, Oak Tree Press, Dublin Tovey, H., and Share, P., (2000) A Sociology o f Ireland, Gil) Sc Macmillan Ltd RTE News (2004), April 28.04.04 Electronic Sources http ://www. iapi.com/research/mediatrends. htm Http ://www. aeforum. org/european/Ireland.html http ://www. meas. ie/consumption3 html http://www.mediaIive.ie/general/top.html http ://www. aeforum. org/european/Ireland. html http .//penaltypoints. ie/about_nsc. html http://iapixom/adeffective/cases02/shame.htm http ://asai.ie/about. htm http://medialive.ie/television.chshare.html http://meas.ie/consumptionl .html 35 Chapter Three Research Methodology 1 National College®/ Ireland Research Methodology 3.0 Introduction to Methodology A research methodology is developed to aid the formulation of research, to identify the main topics to be investigated and finally to act as a guide to outline how the researcher can carry out this investigation in the most effective way possible. The main objective of this ,chapter is to explicitly outline the investigators research problem, objective and an appropriate methodology that will aid the fulfilment of this objective. Malhotra (1999) describes marketing research as “the systematic and objective identification, collection, analysis, dissemination and the use of information for the purpose of improving decision making related to the identification and solution of problems and opportunities in marketing”. The marketing research process refers to a set of stages that detail a number or sequence o f tasks a researcher undertakes to gather and report valid and reliable information to assist with decision-making, Domegan and Fleming (2003). Each stage has both conceptual dimensions and activities, which the investigator must consider and requires thorough implementation to ensure that accurate results are achieved, Malhotra (1999). The following steps, provided by Domegan and Fleming (2003:20) have common characteristics and are complementary to each other and serve the purpose of providing a general structure for planning a research project. Figure 3.6 The Marketing Research Process Stage 1 Problem Definition Stage 2 Research Design Stage 3 Data Collection Methods Stage 4 Sampling Research Methodology Stage 5 Fieldwork Stage 6 Analysis of Data Stage 7 Presentation of Results Source: Domegan and Fleming (2003) 3.1 Research Question and Objectives Subsequent to a review on the relevant literature of fear appeals in advertisements and the industry review, the following research question has been established. The research question therefore is 4To examine fear appeals in advertisements through the use of Irish television media, with particular reference to the National Safety Council’s “Shame” drink driving advertisement’. It is important to note that the research question should provide focus for the study, from which the specific research objective can be formulated. The researcher has set out one objective, which will serve as guidance in the collection of the appropriate data. The following is the research objective, which has been drawn from the research question. Objective 1: to explore the recognition of emotion in advertisements with particular reference to fear appeals and the NSC’s “Shame” drink driving advertisement. To gain an understanding in to peoples recognition and experiences of fear appeals in advertising that promote safer driving behaviour specifically regarding the National Safety Councils “Shame” drink driving advertisement. 38 Research Methodology 3.2 Nature of the Research The research design is an overall blueprint, guideline, plan of action, or framework for the rest of the research process, which will facilitate later decisions that need to be made, Domegan and Fleming (2003). 3.2.1 Exploratory Research The exact purpose of this research is to explore the recognition of fear appeals in the National Safety Council’s advertisements. Therefore, this research could be described as being exploratory in nature. Exploratory research aims to generate a deeper understanding of the phenomenon, Silverman (2000) Domegan and Fleming (2003:23) define exploratory research as “research that aims to explore and discover issues about the problem at hand” and which is characterised by research methods that are highly flexible, unstructured and qualitative. It is important to note that Domegan and Fleming (2003:23) point out the “ ...need by exploratory research to explore and discover, leaves it as response driven, i.e. it is the respondents responses that matter to the investigator and not the questions posed by the researcher”. 3.3 Research Design 3.3.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Research There are two broad types of research methods available to the researcher, qualitative and quantitative research. In general, qualitative research tends to be exploratory while quantitative research tends to be descriptive. From an academic perspective of the author, the most important factor is determining the choice of methodology to use. It is necessary before undertaking the selection of either of these techniques that the author identifies which type o f research will provide essential and significant data, relevant to the aim of the purposed study. According to Brannick and Roche (1997:2) the most simplistic definition of both qualitative and quantitative research is that “...quantitative researchers deal with numbers while qualitative researchers deal with experience and meaning that can only be described in words and not numbers.” 39 Research Methodology Malhotra (1999) also expresses the same view that “ ...quantitative research seeks to quantify the data and, typically applies some form of statistical analysis”. Malhotra (1999) continues by defining qualitative research as “ ...an unstructured, exploratory research methodology based on small samples that provide insights and understandings o f the problem setting”. The author has chosen to carry out the research using a qualitative data collection procedure. The logic for this is that the nature of the research problem merits the need to establish and comprehend people’s behaviour and reactions towards the style of fear appeal advertising. The data required should provide insights into people’s attitudes and behaviour regarding the use of fear appeals in the “Shame” drink driving advertisement. Also, a qualitative approach can give elaborate details of the research question that would be difficult to convey with quantitative methods. It is important to note that “ ...most research methods can be used in either qualitative or quantitative studies”, Silverman (2000:89). Both research methods require the need to collect data and answer questions. However, the difference between the two develops from the procedure in which the findings are interpreted. As noted earlier, quantitative methods involve coding the worded answers into a numerical form, for analysis while qualitative methods involve the transcription of the data. According to Maykut and More house (1999:14), The main difference between the two approaches is not the counting or lack o f counting of the occurrence of a particular word or behaviour, but rather the meaning given to the words, behaviours or documents as interpreted through quantitative analysis or statistical analysis as opposed to patterns of meaning which emerge from the data and are often presented in the participants own words. It is important to note that “ ...the methods used by qualitative researchers exemplify a common belief that they can provide a deeper understanding of social phenomena than would be obtained from purely quantitative data” Silverman (2000:89). By its nature, qualitative research examines a small number of respondents. However, the information uncovered will be greater than would be possible using quantitative research. 40 Research Methodology 3.3.2 Qualitative Research Silverman (2000) believes that qualitative research has a profound understanding of social phenomena, is strong on long descriptive narratives than on statistical tables and involves a variety of different approaches. The area of current study naturally lends itself more towards qualitative types of research, as it attempts to reveal the nature of individuals’ experiences with a phenomenon. Qualitative research will therefore provide the author with a deeper human understanding to the reactions of fear appeal advertisements and will reveal new and fresh information on what is already know. 3.3.3 Evaluation of Qualitative Research Reliability and Validity are the key factors that a researcher must account for when conducting any type of research, Silverman (2000). The case against reliability and validity in qualitative research, arise from the level of the researchers experience, how the events are categorised and what represents a credible truth, Silverman (2000). It has been criticised that qualitative research is very subjective and the concern remains that any given result may have been different with the use of a different moderator or different respondents, Sykes (1999). 3.4 Chosen Form of Data Collection The decision as to what method of data collection to use must now be established. It is one of the most critical points of the research process. It is vital that the decided process will obtain and achieve the widest collection of relevant data required for the study and it must try to provide conclusive answers. The data should be valid, reliable and easily obtainable. There are two main types of data sources. These are primary data and secondary data. Primary data is information that is gathered specifically for a research project. The most familiar primary research methods are focus groups and interviews. 41 Research Methodology Figure 3.7 A classification of Qualitative Research Procedures Source: Malhotra and Birks (2000) Secondary data is information that has been collected for reasons other than the specific research project at hand. It provides clues and direction for the design of primary research. The focus group has been chosen over the individual interview as the group dynamic is deemed an important contributory factor in learning and exploring issues surrounding fear-appeal advertisements. Focus groups distinguish themselves from interviews due to the explicit use of group interaction. 3.4.1 Secondary Data The author had access to the Norma Smurfit Library in the National College of Ireland and also to the D.I.T Aungier Street library. Facilities included databases, academic books, thesis, dissertations, on-line journals, the Internet, newspapers, RTE News broadcasts and archival records. The use of DIT’s Business Source Premier database proved extremely useful as a means of secondary data collection. The author also made contact with the staff of the National Safety Council, NSC and followed this up by visiting their head office in Ranelagh, Dublin. The author had the opportunity to develop a professional contact within the NSC’s, Ms Caroline Spillane, which enabled relevant issues to be discussed from time to time. From this close 42 Research Methodology contact, the NSC supplied a video recording of 6 of their road safety campaigns. The author subsequently had the opportunity to show this video to the participants of the focus group, which contained the following advertising campaigns: ‘Thum p” (seatbelt ad) “Shame” (drink driving Ad), “Damage” (speeding ad), “Texting” (mobile phone texting ad) and “Home” (pedestrian safety ad). The NSC has also expressed a wish to review the findings of this dissertation. 3.4.2 Primary Research The focus group has been chosen by the author as the primary research tool used in the research process. The reasoning behind using a focus group, is to get a deeper understanding behind the recognition and attitudes of emotional appeals, in particularly fear appeals, amongst young people aged eighteen to twenty four years old. The eighteen to twenty four age group has been selected as the focus of this dissertation, as the author has chosen to examine a non-random convenience sample. Recently, the focus group method has enjoyed exceptional popularity. Focus groups are group discussions and are ideal for exploring certain opinions, attitudes, concerns and issues. They provide an insight into group dynamics while still conserving personal judgments. Participation in a group tends to increase individuals knowledge and ‘...compensate for shortfalls and inexperience’, Denise Threlfall (1999:102) The dynamics of the group allow for a true discussion to arise without forcing results and permits participants to express their individual reasoning in establishing the why behind the what. In an attempt to provide a definition, Morgan (1990) as cited in Denise Threlfall (1999: 102) defines focus groups as being ‘. . . a qualitative technique allowing for the explicit use of group interaction to produce data and insights that would be less accessible without the interaction found in a group-. In short,,allowing for the assembly of individuals to interact and discuss a certain topic, focus groups can provide unyielding information and a collection of ideas, opinions and attitudes. According to Barbour and Kitzinger (1999) in addition to focus groups and group interviews, there are a variety of different forms that a group discussion can comprise o f These entail brainstorming sessions, nominal sessions (specific exercises to 43 Research Methodology establish participants priorities), Delphi Groups (panel of experts responding to research results), and consensus panels (“designed to develop agreed professional principles or procedures”), Barbour and Kitzinger (1999:4). Delphi groups and consensus panels differ from the focus group discussions, as they are required to output an agreed response from participants rather than an observation of attitudes or opinions, Barbour and Kitzinger (1999). Focus groups are an extension of individual interviewing, are an appropriate method for examining knowledge, ideas, opinions and attitudes and allow the respondents to express themselves freely, Denise Threlfall (1999). 3.4.3 Evaluation of Focus Groups Brannick and Roche, (1997) highlight many advantages and disadvantages of using focus groups. Advantages * Group interaction may stimulate new ideas * Respondents ideas are likely to be challenged by others * It is possible to gather a large amount of information covering a small number of topics in a short period of time. * Relatively low in cost * Interviewer can conduct several sessions on one topic and not encounter fatigue or boredom However, no research method is better than another and each have their limitations. Brannick and Roche (1997) continue with their evaluation of focus groups by highlighting the disadvantages of using this method of research. 44 Research Methodology Disadvantages ♦ Responses in a group may be influenced or formed by opinions of other group members ♦ Respondents compete with each other for time to talk ♦ If the subject matter is sensitive respondents may be hesitant to talk freely in the presence of others ♦ It is difficult to recruit 8-10 respondents and gather them together in the same place at the same time. With regards to the necessary primary information which the researcher is seeking to obtain, in order to achieve the objective of this dissertation and having deliberated over the relevant literature review, the author proposes that that focus group is the most suitable method of obtaining the information required, as it allows for the free flow of conversation to evolve. 3.4.3 Pre Data Detection Selection A pre data detection was carried out by the researcher to highlight how the information would be obtained in the chosen research method, in this case the focus group. The pre testing should never be left out of any research project as it is undeinable how important and useful it can be to the research puropose. A pre data test can be used to expose problems with questions and potential misinterpretations between the researcher and the respondents. It can also be useful in determining time management as it can approximately discloses the lenght of time required by all participants. In short, pre testing allows problems to be identified at a time when it is possible to rectify them (Brannick & Roche, 1997). ( The author conducted one pre data detection test on one participant, who was both a fully licenced driver and an moderator consumer of alcohol. The the NSC’s video recordings were played and the questions from the theme sheet were asked. An Research Methodology analysis was carried out on the pre testing procedure inorder to identify and develop themes and issues that could be explored in the main focus group. One insight that was gained from the pre data detection testing, was that the respondent could not watch the advertisements as they were seen to be too graphic and distrubing. Another insight showed that the respondent could relate to some of the advertisements but had previously not watched all of them on television. It was also revealed that the most recognised and remembered advertisements were that of the ‘Body to Body’ advertisement. The respondent felt that the advertisement ‘Shame’ does not help to encourge people to stop drink and driving. The pre testing highlighten that the respondent had a good understanding, knowledge and reievent opinions in relation to the advertisements and the research purpose. It also noted that the theme sheet was revelant in probing the respondent and therefore was not altered. The researcher who had no other previous experience in conducting a focus group was able to learn the choregraphics of how one might be carried out, eventhough only one participant was involved. From the pre testing it emergent that a structural approach to the sitting arrangements should be carried out to avoid members of the group from not taking the discussion seriously. 3.4.4 Facilitators Role in the Focus Group One discrepancy that has been argued by Barbour and Kitzinger (1999) is that the researcher must be extremely skilled in preparing and conducting the focus group. The researchers role is to encourage and develop the interaction between respondents. Therefore the role of the researcher (interviewer) is vital in the research process. It is the responsibility o f the researcher to create an atmosphere that is relaxing, will ease the respondents and encourage them to speak freely. The researcher should be able to think quickly, encourage all participants to speak, assist in the closure of incomplete sentences, whilst ensuring that all interesting areas have been discovered. The researcher should remain in control of the discussion at all 46 Research Methodology times but allow for the free flow of conversation. It is also vital that the researcher knows when to contribute to the discussion and when not to. A vital element in conducting any method of primary research is that the researcher should have an in depth knowledge in both the literature and industry reviews o f the chosen topic. 3.4.5 Location of Focus Group It is important to conduct the focus group in an atmosphere, which will relax the interviewees andrencourage them to express their opinion. Therefore, with this in mind and for the convenience of the respondents, the author chose to conduct the focus group on the premises of the National College of Ireland. This also allowed for ease in organising the use of a television and video. 3.4.6 Length of Focus Group As explained by Barbour and Kitzinger, (1999:7) “ ...the appropriate number of focus groups will depend on the research question, the range of people you wish to include and of course, time and resource limitations”. Due to a time constraint in conducting the research and the unavailability of specific demographics, only one focus group discussion, which was 40 minutes long, is provided for in the research findings. 3.4.7 Materials used in the Focus Group One video, supplied by the National Safety Council NSC, comprising of five of their most recent road safety advertisements was used during the focus group. The advertisements on the video consisted of 4 Body to Body’, ‘Shame’, ‘Texting’, Slow Down Boys’ and ‘Damage’. The video material was obtained from the NSC’s Ranelagh office in Dublin. A theme sheet with relevant issues to be discussed was used through out the focus group as a means to probe the participants. In essence it is a topic guide where major themes are identified from the literature review and from the research objectives. It provided the researcher with a guide on which to base the main topics of discussion. 47 Research Methodology The author found this to be extremely useful when discussion on one issued was exhausted and there was a need to introduce an alternative issue. It allowed for the continuation of the group discussion without an uncomfortable silence to descend. The actually theme sheet which was employed is reproduced in Appendix A. 3.4.8 Recording the Focus Group To facilitate in providing a transcript of the focus, the author recorded the focus group using a Dictaphone. The interviewees were all asked individual for their permission in the recording o f the focus group, prior to its commencement. According to Barbour and Kitzinger (1999:15) “ ...tape recording provides far richer research access to the discussion...”. Recording the focus group, allows the researcher to freely conduct the discussion and mingle into the group. It also allows -the interviewer to maintain eye contact and provide full attention, while steering the focus group in the according direction. It allows for the free movement of speech, as there is . ^ * no stopping and waiting whilst the interviewer takes notes. The recording allows the author to accurately interpret the information. r However, one limitation of using this method is that part or all of an interview can be lost through the malfunction of a tape recorder. Fortunately the research was conducted without the need to change to tape and there where no technical difficulties. Another disadvantage o f recording the focus group is that the recordings cannot accurately convey body language and can therefore misinterpret the respondent’s messages. A way to counteract this is to take notes during the focus group of the respondent’s physical actions. 48 > Research Methodology 3.5 The Sampling Process According to Bryman, 1988 (as cited in Silverman, 2000:102) "... the purpose of sampling is usually to study a representative subsection of a precisely defined population in order to make inference about the whole population”. The population to be interviewed in the focus group is of extreme importance for the outcome of the research findings. There are a number of factors that must be considered as determined by Malhotra (1999). These include: Defining the Population Determining the Sample Frame Selecting the Sampling Techniques Determining the Sample Size 3.5.1 Defining the Population Malhotra and Birks (2000) define the target population as the collection of elements or objects that process the information sought by the researcher and about which conclusions are to be made. It is essential in most research projects to represent diverse demographics. The target population for this research study will be males and females between the ages of eighteen and twenty-four years, as the author has chosen a non-random convenience sample due to a lack of resources, time and money. The population mix will comply of those who hold a full drivers license in contrast with those who do not and those who drink alcoholic drinks compared to those whom don’t drink. The targeted population that was interviewed were all associates of the researcher and of each other. This method was undertaking as it was thought that the flow of information and the ease at which it could be given would be easier from friends than from unknown sources. 49 Research Methodology 3.5.2 Determining the Sampling Frame This step involves the description of the means by which respondents were identified. The focus group respondents were recruited from friends of the researcher. Respondents were recruited on the bases of age, sex and whether or not they held a full or provisional drivers licence and whether or not the drink alcohol. Age Sex Drivers Licence or not Drink Alcohol or not 3.5.3 Selecting the Sampling Technique The third stage of the sampling process is the sampling technique. This can instantly be divided into probability and non-probability sampling. According to Malhotra and Birks (2000) probability sampling is a procedure in which each element of the population has a fixed chance of being selected for the sampling. Malhotra and Birks continue by defining non-probability sampling as sampling, which relies on the personal judgement of the researcher rather than on the chance to select sample elements. As the research undertaking by the author is qualitative and as non-probability sampling is used in qualitative research, it is resolved that non-random, non probability sampling will facilitate in the research of this dissertation. There are four types of non-probability sampling. These include convenience, judgemental, quota and snowballing, Malhotra (1999). The researcher decided to use a convenience sample due to a lack of time and availability of sources to interview. According to Malhotra (1999) a convenience sample attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements. In other words, respondents are selected because they are easy to recruit and are willing to participate. The researcher also decided to use a non-random sample due to a time constrict. 50 Research Methodology 3.5.4Determining the Sampling Size The Sample size refers to the number of elements to be used in the study. The author selected eight respondents to participate in the focus group. It was felt by the author that enough information could be gathered from the eight as they possessed the necessary characteristics to be included, that was, they were either drinkers or non drinkers of alcohol and also they either held a full drivers licence or not. 3.5.5 The Respondents In order to adhere to the sampling process outlined, the author recruited eight respondents for the purpose of the research. Due to assurances of confidentiality, the author has employed pseudo-names to ensure that the information remains confidential. Jack Jack is twenty-two years old and currently working full time. Last year he received his degree in Business Studies. He is a moderator consumer of alcohol and holds a full drivers licence for the last four years. Michael Michael is twenty-one years old and is currently in his final year of study for his degree in European Business Studies and Languages. He is an above moderator consumer o f alcohol and holds a full drivers licence for the last two years. Sarah Sarah is twenty-four years old and is currently working full time. She does not drink alcohol and has neither a provisional nor a full driver’s licence. Jane Angela is nineteen years old and is studying for her degree in the National College of Ireland. She has a full drivers licence and does not drink alcohol. 51 Research Methodology Donal Donal is twenty-one years old and is studying for his degree in European Business Studies and Languages in NCI. He is a moderator consumer of alcohol and has neither a provisional nor a full driver’s licence. Ciara Ciara is twenty-three years old and is studying in NCI for her finals in European Business Studies and Languages. Ciara has had a full driver’s licence for the last two and a half years and is a moderate consumer of alcohol. Judith Judith is twenty years old and is working full time. She does not have a full drivers licence and is a moderator consumer of alcohol. Paul Paul is twenty-one years old and is currently studying for his final exams in the National college of Ireland. Paul has neither a provisional nor a full driver’s licence and is a very light consumer of alcohol. 3.6 Data Analysis Marshall and Rossman (1999) define data analysis as ‘‘the process of bringing order, structure and interpretations to the mass of collected data”. The results from the research are exploratory due to the qualitative nature of the research. The method of analysis begins with the transcription of the tape recordings followed by a content analysis of the script. Malhotra (2004:189) characterises content analysis as “ the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication”. The analysis o f focus group data is completely different from the analysis of data collected through other qualitative or quantitative techniques. Focus group analysis is difficult in that there is “no systematic protocol that applies to the diversity of situations that can be encountered in focus group research”, Barbour and Kitzinger (1999). The units of analysis may be words or characteristics, themes, space and time 52 yt Research Methodology measures or topics, Malhotra (2004). Precision is essential when categorising the data, so that under examination by other coders, the results would be the same, Silverman (2000). Lewis et al (1997:339) highlights three unique characteristics of qualitative data collection and analysis: 1. Based on meanings expressed through words 2. Collection of results in a non-standardised data requiring classification into categories so it can be analysed meaningfully 3. Analysis conducted through the use of conceptualisation The author examined differences and similarities amongst the themes outline so that practical findings could then be compared and contrasted to the literature review, which is the basis for the research objectives. To easy the commentary on various themes, the author will insert the appropriate parts o f the transcript from the focus group in to the analysis. By conducting this, passages of similar themes will be grouped together in a coherent manner that will facilitate a more simplistic analysis. 3.7 Presenting the Findings Chapter six and seven outline the proposed interpretations and conclusions based on the findings of the research. 53 !> ; > Research Methodology 3.8 Conclusion This chapter has educated the researcher with a broader knowledge of what the research process entails. The literature review enabled the researcher to drawn up appropriate objectives from which the focus group was decided upon as the qualitative research process. The researcher came to the conclusion that the focus group was the most appropriate method because: 1. An exploratory research approach was adopted 2. Personal contact was vital in order to encourage participants to share information 3. The nature of the questions required a discussion among a group. Therefore a questionnaire or interview would have been inappropriate. The author has stressed the importance of secondary research in the research process as it is often neglected in the research methodology outline. The following chapter presents the interpretation and analysis of the findings obtained for the transcript o f the focus group. 54 Research Methodology References Brannick, T., Roche, W.K., (1997) Business Research Methods, Strategies, Techniques and Sources, Oak Tree Press Denise Threlfall, K., (1999) “Using focus groups as a consumer research tool”, Journal o f Advertising Practice: Applied Marketing Science, Vol. 5, issue 4, pp. 102105 Domegan, C., Fleming, D., (2003) Marketing Research in Ireland, Theory and Practice, 2nd Ed, Gill & Macmillan, Dublin Lewis, P., Saunders Dr. M., & Thornhill, Dr. A., (1997) Research Methods for Business Students, London: Pitman Publishing Malhotra, N.K., (2004) Marketing Research; An applied Orientation, 4th Ed, Prentice Hall International Malhotra, N.K, (1999) Marketing Research; An Applied Orientation, 3rd Ed, Prentice Hall, New Jersey Malhotra, N., Birks, D., (2000) Marketing Research; An Applied Approach, European Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey Maykut, P., Morehouse, R., (1994) Beginning Qualitative Research, A Philosophic and Practical Guide, The Farmer Press, London Silverman, D., (2000) Doing Qualitative Research; A Practical Handbook, SAGE Publications, London Sykes, W„ (1999), “Taking stock: issues from the literature on validity and reliability in qualitative research”, Journal o f Marketing Research Society, Vol.33, No.l 55 Chapter Four Research Analysis & Findings V 1 National College* Ireland Analysis and Findings 4.0 Introduction This chapter analysis the focus group in relation to the literature reviewed in chapter one. The transcript of the focus group will be broken down into themed segments. These segments will be examined under the research objectives, which were set out in section 3.1. Imperative to analysis is that the researcher must keep in mind what new information is provided by the focus group. Focus group analysis is unique in that data derived from a group process is in a focused manner. As a result, participants influence each other, opinions change and new insights emerge. Participants learn from each other and those things learned can shape attitudes and opinions. All these factors must be taken into account in the analysis of data. Research Objectives The analysis is guided by the research plan, as the research plan guides and focuses the research. The objective has determined what has been examined, but it is important to note that in the focus group research, it is easy for the discussion to drift off the point and hence new concepts can emerge that were not predicated. The following is a reminder of the research objective for this dissertation. Research Objective 1: to explore the recognition of emotion in advertisements with particular reference to fear appeals and the NSC’s “Shame” drink driving advertisement. To gain an understanding in to peoples recognition and experiences of fear appeals in advertising that promote safer driving behaviour specifically regarding the National Safety Councils “Shame” drink driving advertisement. 57 Analysis and Findings 4.1 Emergent Themes from Discussion On analysis of the focus group the researcher became aware of recurring themes that emerged throughout. The researcher grouped all relevant data under the various relevant categories. All the references from the focus group were chosen on the basis of being most reflective of the topic being discussed at the time. From examining the literature review it is evident that “communications using fear appeals are designed to stimulate anxiety in an audience with the expectation that the audience will attempt to reduce this anxiety by adopting, continuing, discontinuing or awarding a specified cause of thought or action”, Kay (1972). 4.1.1 Themes in Relation to the Research Objective 1 To explore the recognition of emotion in advertisements with particular reference to fear appeals and the NSC’s “Shame” drink driving advertisement. 4.1.2 Fear One major theme that emergent from the transcript, under which all the other themes can relate to was the detection of fear. Respondents identified with threats while using key words such as aware, safety, scare and shock. Michael: ...It’s just a shock Paul: I was just shocked first like, ya can’t imagine it happening until you see it on the screen like the heads bashing off each other Jack: Well they re all fear advertisements like there re all there to scare you Ciara: Well they are a lot more aware after watching the ads Michael: Safety and the drivers The following themes are all relevant to the fear theme stated above. 58 Analysis and Findings 4.1.3 Recognition of Emotion The participants were untroubled in remembering advertisements that used emotion when they were asked to do so. Louise: Like the Heineken ads are really funny and the Carlsberg ads as well. The one with the house viewing is really funny when he walks out on to the balcony and it’s overlooking the football pitch. Paul: The maltesser ads always use sex or love to sell their products especially the one with the girl and boy sitting on the sofa and she’s pregnant. That’s a love theme. Ciara: Like the Benethon ads, they don’t actually sell the latest product but 1 think its through emotion like love or happiness or something ... that they sell the brand name. Donal: There’s them other ads the drink driving ones and the seat belt ones, there savage but then there suppose to stick in your head you know what 1 mean I don’t know did you ever see them just ploughing in to someone. Sarah: Ya they re there to make you scared to make you put your seatbelt on and not to drive fast. Michael: The milk tray ads as well all because the lady loves milk tray, that’s love or lust and I would buy the chocolates because its kind of portrayed that these r chocolates show that you 11 give her whatever she wants... and love I suppose f The ease at which the respondents could recall emotional advertisements, how quick they could recall them and the abundance of examples given, shows that the participants have the capability to remember and to identify emotion in advertisements. Wells et al (2003) states that “ ...advertisers that touch people’s emotions with their messages have a greater success in getting consumers to remember that message”. This argument tends to agree with the primary research findings. As seen from the focus group transcription, emotion plays a major factor in recalling an advertisement. 59 Analysis and Findings 4.1.4 Awareness It was widely agreed among the participants that when fear is used in advertisements it brings awareness to a situation. Louise: Like that government ad for the waste recycling is using disgust and fear to make us more aware of what’s happening they re trying to make us more aware and frighten in order for us to do something otherwise a plain and simple ad with some guy talking in the background would have no relevance to us and we don’t relate to. Ciara: When you think about it it is also using love to evoke the fear to make us aware cause when the dad grads the girl to take her to safety of out harms way. Jane: I agree he loves his daughter but he can see what’s happening therefore he becomes aware of it out of the fear that something could happen to her. Jack: Like it’s the same with those concern ad s when you see those kids on TV ya just go oh Jesus. The respondents feel that when fear is used as an emotion in an advertisement it brings the idea of awareness faster. As seen from the literature review, LaTour and Rotfeld (1997) affirm that fear is an emotional response that can induce awareness and changes in attitude and behavior intentions. It can be true to say that when, fear is used the viewer becomes more concerned about the threat Therefore, they take action to reduce that threat. It is also noted that the respondents feel that when fear and another emotion are combined together in advertisements, awareness is greater and the threat becomes more urgent. 4.1.5 Reactions to Fear Avoidance: Participants out rightly agreed that when they recognise the NSC’s advertisements on television they change channel or turn away. Jack: I would switch over as I just don’t like watching them. Sarah: If the TV was far away Id just leave it on but I d probably turn my head or something but if the remote was beside me I would change it. 60 Analysis and Findings Jane: I agree, I switch the channel or leave to room to make some tea. The participants have already indicated that they are able to recognise an emotional advertisement. On recognising the fear element in some of the NSC’s advertisements, the participants clearly describe how they avoid the exposure to the advertisements by taking appropriate steps. The literature addresses this issue when Witte (1992) comments on the defensive outcomes of fear appeals. She stated that defensive avoidance was a resistance to a message by being inattentive to the communication. Therefore, the participants are theoretically engaging in Witte’s defensive avoidance theory. Change Behaviour: The recognition of fear in an advertisement leads the way for some alteration of behaviour. Participants have stated that when the threat is relevant and the fear has been recognised, previously they have reacted in some way to reduce that fear. Jack: I put my seatbelt on all the time because I know from the ad what could happen if I don’t and it might nt necessarily be my fault. Michael: Ya definitely I would refer to that ad like even years ago if I was in the back 1 would nt have put my seat belt on but now you re told to wear it. Burke and Edell (1989), discussed in the literature, that emotions that were educed by advertisements can influence and impact on attitudes and behaviour. This argument tends to concur with the findings as there was an agreed response that the recognition of fear in the seatbelt advertisement has changed all the respondents’ behaviour in order to reduce the threat. The respondents maintain that the advertisement has reinforced the point of wearing your seat belt both in the front and back seats of a car. Therefore, it can be expected that if the threat is relevant to individuals they can change behaviour. 61 Analysis and Findings 4.1.6Channel Switching Channel switching is a common practice among all the participants of the focus group when the road safety advertisements are aired on television and is a major theme in the focus group. The overall belief was that one would watch the full advertisement for the first time mainly for curiosity reasons. After viewing it once, if it re-appeared they claimed they would turn it off or simply turn away. One participant admitted that as a result of screening these advertisements that he had in fact not viewed two of them in full before. Paul: in the beginning it was more curiosity to watch them to see what happens but I actually don’t watch them now. Jack: I would switch over as I just don’t like watching them. When you see them for the first time you just wonder what’s going to happen but I don’t like them at all. Sarah: If the TV was far away Id just leave it on but I d probably turn my head or something but if the remote was beside me I would change it. Jane: I agree, I switch the channel or leave to room to make some tea. As soon as it comes on you don’t want to watch it again. All members of the focus group throughout the discussion mentioned a dislike of the advertisements. Some opinions presented were that the advertisements were ineffective as one refuses and avoids watching them. This can lessen the potential effectiveness of the advertisements. 4.1.7 Plays in your mind The respondents all agree that they did not like watching the advertisements. However, it was suggested that even if one avoids the advertisements, after a glimpse of the start of one of them, it could still re-play in your head. Donal: I think that even if you do change channels you still have to see the start of them and you go oh no its one of those ads and then it plays around in your head. 62 Analysis and Findings Jack: Even in turning the channel when the ad comes on is in a way having an effect on people because you know what’s going to happen you might not want to watch it but it does play in your mind. Ciara: Even though you know what’s going to happen you nearly play it through in your head even if you do turn it over., you can still see what happens. Sarah: Even though I don’t drive and I turn away I still know what happens anyway. The respondents recognised that even if a person is to switch channels when the advertisements are aired, that this does not truly reduce its effectiveness as the scene is played through in your mind. As a result the ad has had an effect on the person, maybe even more so than those who sit through them. 4.1.8 Male Drivers It was strongly proposed that the inclusion of all drivers as males in the advertisements seemed unfair and in some ways could take from the effectiveness of the female viewer. Jack: ok statistics might prove that boys are more likely to crash but what’s, the harm in putting a girl in the drivers seat in one of those four ads rather than just girls like..I think it’s sexist. Jane: I agree with you on that. Girls drive too and girls cause accidents just as much so in a way some females may regard those ads as not being important to them and so they don’t have an effect on them. Michael: Ya I hate when the guy comes on and he says slow down boys or little boy racers. It really irritates me it feels like they are having a go at us all the time girls speed to and so do older people and I don’t consider myself a boy. Paul: I think that young people can take a real dislike to something like that and then not heed the ad at all. If someone did nt like that ad well than its obviously not going to be heeded and in the way children do the opposite to what their told this could also be the case. Jane: the last one was slow down boys and Michael is going to hit his girlfriend so its aimed at fellows more so., even though the girls are there but it seems that its 63 , Analysis and Findings aimed at the boys for example slow down boys and the guy looking at the girl going around the comer. Commenting on the use of male drivers in all of the road safety advertisements, the respondents felt that this seemed unfair and sexist. It was also suggested that the non-usage of female drivers could exclude female viewers from relating to the ad and hence reduce its effectiveness. The message behind the speeding message, slow down and don’t speed on the roads, seems to be outshone by the caption of the advertisement. The “Slow Down Boys” caption seems to have attracted more attention than it should warrant. According the Meenaghan and O’ Sullivan (1995) the idea that consumers generate their own meanings while interacting with a text is of concern not just to advertisers and marketers but also to society at large. 4.1.9 Penalty Points The respondents that were able to drive admitted that the threat of getting penalty points was much more forceful than the fear of killing someone. ,t. A * i, Jane: I know say if I was out driving along I’m thinking more so like are the Gardas around are you going to get caught as opposed to if I put my foot down am I going to kill someone.... I’m more concerned about the idea of points as apposed to killing someone. Jack: I think people think that they are invincible and maybe they think its not going to happen to them but I would be more concerned with getting the points than killing someone. Michael: I have slowed down but to be honest I ve only slowed down because of the penalty points. Even though the respondents are aware of the advertisements and have seen the consequences of what can happen while speeding or drink driving, the fact can be recognised that the threat of getting penalty points is much greater than injuring or killing someone. This refers directly to the literature, where Agres et al (1990) states 64 Analysis and Findings that the strongest use of fear appeal is social disapproval”. The consequences of killing someone are not taken as seriously as receiving points, incurring a higher insurance premium or social disapproval. 4.1.10 Sound Effects and Theme Music The music played and the sound effects in each separate advertisement had a major effect on the advertisement’s effectiveness and ability to recall the advertisement. Donal: 1don’t enjoy hearing the ads Jack: The body-to-body one. If I hear the song it would remind me of the ad know what I mean I associate the two of them together. you Louise: Ya I flick over when I hear that song body-to-body I hate it I don’t even have to see the ad. Ciara: and the cracking of the heads together is just awful. Sarah: the sound of the boy crashing of his girlfriend’s head is actually too much for me. I can’t bear it at all. I cringe. ?• , There was a unanimous response at the mention of music and sound effects in;the ^ advertisements. It can be noted that the music enhances the effectiveness of the ad, as people can relate to the ad through its music and not just whether or not they drink or drive. Samantha Mumbas song Body-to-Body was the one which was most recalled by the participants. The participants widely agreed that the noise of the boy hitting his girlfriend on the head made the advertisement most memorable. The sound had a more pronounced effect and contributed to the fearful emotions evoked in the advertisement. 65 Analysis and Findings With Particular reference to the “Shame” drink driving advertisement, the following themes emergent from the focus group. 4.1.11 Realism Quinn, Meenaghan and Brannick (1992) pointed out in the literature that an important factor in determining the success of a fear appeal message is how the respondents perceive the credibility of the threat. The participants jointly agreed that the “Shame” advertisement, above all the others, was the most unrealistic ad and they could not relate to it. A conflicting issue arose in the group when probed further to explain why the “Shame” ad has had no effect on the respondents. The majority agreed that the advertisement was not a realistic portrayal of what could happen in the given situation and therefore the advertisement was discredited. However, one party expressed her opinion that she felt that the ad was realistically portrayed. Jane: I think we have a similar opinion that it’s on the far fetched side. Michael: It’s just a freak accident. Jack: Its hard to know if those ads are realistic what I mean is some of them are kind of like a bit exaggerated like could that actually happen. Louise: I know this sounds really bad and I know it’s a shameful ad but I just wonder why the kid has not been more seriously injured because he’s just been squashed by a car. Paul: I was thinking that as well. t Donal: You re not just going to kill a kid it’s just a random thing to happen. Its just so far fetched. Jack: I don’t play football so I cant relate to it on that point either. Ciara: I don’t think that its far fetched I can see a car coming through the hedge I do think that it would roll so I do think that it would hit the child around here.. 66 Analysis and Findings argue that individuals who are exposed to strong fear communications, attributed to a high credible source, would demonstrate the greatest change in attitudes and behavior. The respondents felt that the advertisements, in particularly the “Shame” ad were portrayed in an unrealistic fashion. They felt that the graphics in the “Shame” ad actually outweighed the realism of the message. They could not put themselves in any position in the ad, could not relate to it and therefore this shadowed its effectiveness. A member of the group also stated that he does not play football so the ad had no bearing on him. The point was made that the respondents could not associate the consequences as something that could possibly happen to them, as they could not associate with the young man in the driver’s seat. Although one participant challenged the group on this issue, it stands however that the majority of the group believe it to be an unrealistic depiction of what could happen. 4.1.12 Relevance r When asked if they felt that the NSC’s advertisements and specifically the “Shame” ■i advertisement had an impact on them, the respondents replied that they could relate u to the speeding, texting and seatbelt advertisements but they could not relate to the ’ “Shame” advertisement. An overwhelming belief stood among participants that, if they could not relate or find relevance in an advertisement then the emotion was overlook and the advertisement had no impact on them. Bennett (1996) as mentioned before addresses the issue and states that the advertisement must be relevant to the target audience in order to be successful. Jane: Going against what statistics have proven it is older people for example in our parents age who would be doing the drink driving and it’s the younger people that do the speeding so in this sense 1 feel that that ad is aimed at the wrong people and therefore I don’t think that it holds (Shame ad) any relevance to me and that can stick in peoples heads when they see the ad on television Ciara: I agree I think that young people will organise that if they are going out and will be drinking they wont take the car with them whereas older people go out... 67 Analysis and Findings they just go out with the car they have a couple of drinks and then they drive home they don’t have it planned but they don’t have it planned either for a drinking session ya know that kind of way its not in their heads to go out drinking for a session so they are never as organised as young people. Michael: I think its very unacceptable amongst young people to drink and drive... but among older people its alright as nobody questions them and they ve been doing it all their life anyway I feel that that ad does not have any influence on whether or not I would drink and drive its too freak an accident anyway. Jack: That ad passes over my head 1 don’t relate to it as I don’t play football therefore I’m not threaten by the situation presented. In relation to the other advertisements the respondents felt that they could relate to those in some way. When questioned if the “Thump” seatbelt advertisement has resulted in the respondents being more aware of the consequences, they all agreed that it had. Michael: Ya definitely I would refer to that ad like even years ago if I was in the back I would nt have put my seat belt on but now you re told to wear it. Louise: Like even in a taxi sometimes when I’m sitting in the back they 11 tell you to put your seatbelt on. Jack: After seeing the ad and ya can hear the banging of the heads there s nothing as worse as that but eh I put my seatbelt on all the time because I know from the ad what could happen if I don’t and it might nt necessarily be my fault. Jane: But ya know that if you don’t wear your seatbelt there is a good chance that you could die.. ..but the drink driving ad does nt make a huge impact. The participants agreed that the “Shame” advertisement had no relevance to them as there was nothing in the ad that they could relate to. It was also felt that the ad was actually aimed at the wrong people and therefore could not have an effect on them. However they expressed that the “Thump” seatbelt ad had relevance to everyone 68 Analysis and Findings and therefore had a dramatic effect on people changing their behaviour. Relevance plays a major factor in the recognition of emotion in advertisements. 4.2 Conclusion The purpose of this chapter was to present the findings reached from the research relevant to the objective set out. The next chapter will draw up some of the principal conclusions from the analysis and present recommendations that the author would make for future research. 69 Analysis and Findings References Agres, J.S., Edell. J.A., Dubitsky, T.M., (1990) Emotion in Advertising: Theoretical and Practical Explorations, Quorum Books, NY Bennett, R., (1996) “Effects of Horrific Fear Appeals on Public Attitudes Towards AIDS”, International Journal o f Advertising, Vol. 15, pp. 183-202 LaTour, M.S., Rotfeld, H.J., (1997) “There are threats and (maybe) Fear-Caused Arousal: Theory and Confusions of Appeals to Fear and Fear Arousal Itself5, Journal o f Advertising, Vol. XXVI, autumn Meenaghan, T., O’Sullivan, P., (1995) Marketing Communications in Ireland, Oak Tree v Press, Dublin Quinn, V., Meenaghan, T., Brannick, T., (1992) “Fear Appeals: Segmentation is the Way 'if to go”, International Journal o f Advertising, Vol. 11, pp.35 5-366 Wells, Burnett, Moriarty (2003) Advertising, Principles and Practice, 6th Edition, Prentice Hall International 6th edition, 2003 Witte, K., (1992) “ Putting the Fear Back into Fear Appeals: The Extended Parallel Process Model”, Communication Monographs, December, Vol. 59, pp. 329-349 70 ^ Chapter Five Conclusions & Recommendations National College* Ireland Conclusions and Recommendations 5.0 Introduction The preceding chapter analysed concisely the particular themes that emerge from the primary research. It should be remembered that qualitative research is exploratory in nature and is difficult to label as conclusive. Therefore the author will subjectively present what she sees as the conclusions to be drawn from the research. The author acknowledges that issues arose that were considered in chapter one but the primary research also revealed issues that the author did not address in great detail in the literature review. Over the course of the study the researcher was able to gain a telling insight into the opinions of the respondents concerning the topic at hand. The author will now explicate the main findings in accordance with the objective of this dissertation as set out in chapter three. Research Objective 1 The discussion on individual’s recognition of emotional appeals in advertising resulted in many interesting conclusions. Firstly, the respondents were capable of identifying emotion in advertisements swiftly and with out any hindrance, which concludes that when emotion is used in advertisements as a means of captivating its viewers, it can be recognised by its audience. This directly ties in with what Wells et al (2003) stated as that “ ...advertisers that touch people’s emotion with their messages have a greater success in getting consumers to remember that message” . The NSC’s road safety advertisements were identified as having a memorable effect on all of the respondents. However, their recognition of the advertisements has averted their exposure to them, as the respondents engage in defensive avoidance strategies such as changing the channel, turning away or even leaving the room, in order to avoid the exposure of the threat The theory examined in the literature review discusses the outcome variables of fear appeals as defensive avoidance and reactance. 72 Conclusions and Recommendations The respondents openly do not like watching the road safety advertisements as they vividly combine descriptions and depictions to convey the message. The research findings indicate that although the respondents had previously shunned the advertisements, the ads still had an impact on their behaviour. It was explain by the respondents in the focus group, that even though one might not necessarily watch the ads anymore, if even a glimpse of the ad is caught, then images from the first time viewing it can be re enforced in your mind, mounting to its effectiveness. The “Thump” seatbelt advertisement compared with the other four advertisements played for the respondents, has had immense success, as all the participates admitted to having altered their attitudes and behaviour because o f the threat created in the advertisement. The respondents felt that they could relate to this advertisement on a much deeper level than the “Shame” advertisement. The respondents felt that the “Thump” ad was much needed, as the fear content evoked awareness to the devastating effects of not wearing a seatbelt. The respondents agreed that fear can induces awareness and hence alter attitudes and behaviours. The sound effects and theme music used in the advertisements have enhanced their effectiveness, as the respondents consider that the body-to-body song and the noise of the boy hitting his girlfriend on the head are the most memorable and recognised parts of the ad. As a result, it is fair to say that fear appeals have made the respondents aware of the consequences of a similar situation. During the course o f the focus group, it strongly emerged that the respondents felt that the threat of getting penalty points was much greater than the fear o f killing someone. The respondents revealed that among society a social threat would be considered much more forceful than a physical threat. The damaging consequences of drink driving, does have an influence on the respondents behaviour Nonetheless, this has not been re-enforced by the “Shame” Advertisement. The respondents feel that it is socially unacceptable to drink and drive. However, they also 73 Conclusions and Recommendations considered that this particular advertisement has no relevance to them even though it has been aimed at them and is neither a realistic nor credibly portrayal of events. The majority of the respondents could not even place themselves in a same occurrence as illustrated in the advertisement as they could not associate with the young man in the ad. Since the audience cannot find any relevance in an advertisement to themselves the emotion is overlooked and the advertisements has had no impact. Rogan (2000) explains that an advertising message is much more effective if the audience feels a sense of involvement. This can also be connected to the male representation in the advertisement. Overall, the respondents were resentful of the fact that the blame is place continuingly on males for the reckless driving behaviour on Irish roads. The respondents also expressed a view that the inclusion of just male drivers could actually take from the effectiveness of the female viewer. 5.2 Recommendations for Future Study The author conducted only one focus group in the Dublin area. Further research would have been invaluable but was not deemed possible due to financial time and constraints. Extensive and additional research would have attained a wider representation of the target population and proven useful in the confirmation of results. Further focus group analysis of the penalty points in regard to social marketing would be beneficial. Further study on segmentation could also be explored. It became apparent from the literature review that the “ same fear appeals may produce different perceptions on different people”, Witte (1995). Careful identification of the correct segment would allow the message to be received by that segment and prevent message screening and channel hopping. Another topic for further investigation would be the male portrayal in the road safety advertisements. It is likely that due to the “sexist” inclusion of males as drivers in all of 74 Conclusions and Recommendations the NSC’s advertisements, that the effectiveness of the ads will decrease with time. Further research could be carried out to investigate how the ineffectiveness of the ads among men could be achieved whilst still targeting male drivers. The level of fear in social marketing could be examined further to investigate if a higher level of fear would have a more pronounced effective in relation to the road safety advertisements. There is a wealth of other research that could be undertaking in relation to the unrealistic depiction of the “Shame” advertisement This could provide an insight into why this advertisement and not the others has been judged as irrelevant and unlikely to occur. An extensive study could be carried out into the alcohol consummation of the participants, so that the results would be a fair and total evaluation of the proposed research. 5.3 Limitations of the Research The researcher did not have any other prior experience in carrying out research so this in its self is a limitation. Limitations o f time and money resources prevented further focus groups to be held, which if were carried out would have provide for an extensive collection o f information data. If the researcher were to carry this study out again, she would expand the range of the sample to include random sampling. If time and resources were not a concern, perhaps the inclusion o f another method of primary research could be considered. Conclusions and Recommendations 5.4 Final Conclusion Fear appeal advertising is used by means of extracting an emotional response from it’s viewers, in order to get them to act in a certain way. There has been much examination in to the use of appeals in advertising, especially the use of fear. The literature review provides a solid piece of work, from which the author clearly outlines the objectives of this research. The advertising industry in Ireland was discussed to order to gain a comprehendible insight into the Irish advertising sector. The objectives were laid out in the methodology chapter and the focus group was chosen as the research method. The transcript from the focus group was then analysis by content analysis and finally the conclusions were drawn on this analysis. This research dissertation achieved an extensive understanding of fear appeals in advertisements and an understanding in to people’s recognition of them. 76 A A i-i 04) O 3 • P"4 .03 Agres, J.S., Edell. 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Zinn, H., C., Manfredo, M., J., (2000) “An Experimental Test of Rational and Emotional Appeals about a Recreational Issue”, Leisure Science, July, Vol. 22, issue 3, pp.183-195 Electronic Sources http://asai.ie/about.htm http://iapi.com/adeffective/cases02/shame.htm http://meas. ie/consumption 1. html http://medialive.ie/television.chshare.html http://penaltypoints.ie/about_nsc.html Http://www.aeforum.org/european/Ireland.html http ://www. aeforum.org/european/lreland. html http //www.ciadvertising.org/studies/student/98_fall/theory/weirtz/Emotion. htm http://www.iapi.com/research/mediatrends.htm http: //www. meas je/consumption3. html 82 http ://www.medi alive, ie/general/top. html http://www.tristate.edu/facuity/herbig/imc09.htm RTE News (2004), April 28.04.04 H -e •P i a a e< < Theme Sheet for Focus Groups What do you think o f advertising in general? Do you notice different styles of advertising? IE Funny, Informative, Humour, Ironic? What type of advertising do you think is most effective? Advertisements will then be used as stimuli material in the focus group. What you think those advertisements all have in common? Which one do you think is most effective? Have you ever discussed these advertisements with your friends? What did you talk/say about them? Do you think that that threats presented are realistic? Why/ Not? What could make them more realistic? Do you think that the threat or event could happen to you or your friends if you don’t do what they are recommending you to do? Do you think that the advertisements show you effectively how to avoid the situations presented? Do you think that people are frightened/alert after watching these advertisements? Do you think it is right for advertisers to make people feel frightened or guilty to get them to act in a certain way that they want? Why? Does it affect you? What is your personally opinion of the advertisement Shame? What threats are present in the Advertisement? Death, Injury, guilt, Social disapproval.. Do you think that the advertisement is realistic? How do you think people cope when they see these advertisements on television? How do you react when these advertisements are aired on television? Switch over/ joke / change behaviour What do you associate with the advertisements? Music/ Songs used. 85 Do you believe that drink driving is less socially accepted nowadays or do you think that due to the mass number of people caught each week that others are more tolerant of it? Has the advertisement made you change you re behaviour? Do you think that the adverts are informative or do you think that it is so frightening that people miss the underlining message? Do you think that what happens in the adverts really happen in real life? 86 Focus group Transcription Elaine: Have you noticed different styles of advertisements on television? Louise: Like the Heineken ads are really funny and the Carlsberg ads as well. The one with the house viewing is really funny when he walks out on to the balcony and it's overlooking the football pitch. All: ya, Paul: The maltesser ads always use sex or love to sell their products especially the one with the girl and boy sitting on the sofa and she’s pregnant. That’s a love theme. Michael: or it could be happiness Ciara: Like the Benethon ads, they don’t actually sell the latest product but I think its through emotion like love or happiness or something ... that they sell the brand name. Jack: Insurance ads are informative ads like, call this number to get a free quote or there re informing you where they are and what their rates are ,like. Michael: The milk tray ads as well all because the lady loves milk tray, that’s love or lust and I would buy the chocolates because its kind o f portrayed that these chocolates show that you 11 give her whatever she wants... and love I suppose ' Louise: Like that government ad for the waste recycling is using disgust and fear to make us more aware of what’s happening they re trying to make us more aware and frighten in order for us to do something otherwise a plain and simple ad with some guy talking in the background would have no relevance to us and we don’t relate to. Ciara: When you think about it it is also using love to evoke the fear to make us a ware cause when the dad grads the girl to take her to safety o f out harms way. Jane: I agree he loves his daughter but he can see what’s happening therefore he becomes aware o f it out o f the fear that something could happen to her. Michael: What other ads are there Donal: There’s them other ads the drink driving ones and the seat belt ones, there savage but then there suppose to stick in your head you know what I mean I don’t know did you ever see them just ploughing in to someone. Michael: Ya or you re just there smoking and Louise: ya the smoking ad Sarah: Ya Louise: There actually like...I really would turn it off like so Jane: ya Jack: Its hard to know if those ads are realistic you know what I mean Some o f them are kind of like what I mean is they re a bit egsaderated kind o f Like could that really possibly happen Jamie: ya like would they actually happen Jack: Like ya some of them I think are a bit far fetched Pause Elaine: Do you think television advertisements work, Do you think people buy from them Jack:It depends.. I would think that., no offence but that women are more susceptible like.. Louise: ya like for make up... Jane: ya and anti-wrinkling creams and what n o t . . but that only cause we don’t want to get wrinkles Jack: ya like that Louise: Laughs Jack: ya definitely cause I think they are more like maybe into their beauty or what not like so ya know what I mean like so there more susceptible to them., and they’re more targeted maybe towards them as well Louise: Ya Jane: I think., ya know the new impulse ad ya know the..goddess one. Lousie and Sarah: Ya She’s walking on the beach Jane: Well I just actually went and smelt that one it smells rotten Louise: Its horrible it’s disgusting Jane: but I..it was in my head Michael: Claire: Eadaoin: Ya Louise: After seeing it on television Jane: exactly it’s the newest product Pause Elaine: So like just say if you were watching a film and the advertisements come on., would you sit down a watch them or would you get up and get a cup of tea Louise: switch over Ciara: It depends if the remote is working or not Everyone: Laughs Ciara: But eh ya I would nt. ifI was watching the adverts they would nt really be... unless the products were relative to me or relevant to me 1 would nt pass any remarks Michael: If I was recording something I would nt record the ads. Elaine: You would nt record them or record them and then fast forward them Michael: Well if 1 was watching them Id fast forward them Id say Elaine: Ok. What I’m going to do now is I’m going to show you some ads. So I just want your opinion on them when we re finished. Video Time ^ Michael: Safety and the drivers one of them is about pedestrians and one was about the driver and texting Jane: I know from the .. . when the little kid like most cases its as if they re all really happy and enjoying life and the next minute., dead and then its like... well that was a driver as well and then the last one its slow down boys and Michael is going to hit his girlfriend so its aimed at fellows more so., even the girls are there but it just seems that its kind of like slow down boys like your man looking at the girl going around the comer eh I did nt see the guy in the van what was he like but..and then ..eh., your man driving his van Elaine: So who do you think the ads a re aimed at? Jane: Well they re using men as an example and that’s what there saying.. .that men drive fast and women are safer drivers then men eh that sort of thing. Women s insurance is lower than men’s. Women s insurance is lower than blokes. Jack: Ya know like obviously the whole thing is..... they are all fear like..There not... there all fear appeal there trying to I don’t know scare ya to a certain point like would ya ...would ya actually do... would you actually like do that do ..but em I don’t think..Ok statistics prove that boys are lads are more likely to crash but like what’s the harm in putting a girl in the drivers seat in one of those four ads rather than like lads.. I think that that’s sexist and all { Louise: ya there re all lads Jane: I agree with you on that. Girls drive too and girls cause accidents just as much so in a way some females may regard those ads as not being important to them and so they don’t have an effect on them. Michael: Ya I hate when the guy comes on and he says slow down boys or little boy racers..It really irritates me it feels like they are having a go at us all the time girls speed to and so do older people and I don’t consider myself a boy. Paul: I think that young people can take a real dislike to something like that and then not heed the ad at all. If someone did nt like that ad well than its obviously not going to be heeded and in the way children do the opposite to what their told this could also be the case. Jane: the last one was slow down boys and Michael is going to hit his girlfriend so its aimed at fellows more so., even though the girls are there but it seems that its aimed at the boys for example slow down boys and the guy looking at the girl going around the comer. Jack: I know that statistics and all that prove but still at the some tim e.... and also like I don’t know if people... like are people more like... if 1 was to go out in my car or whatever would I be more afraid of like say I don’t know like actually at the end if something did happen to me like losing my actually licence like The penalty points like the end result of that is that obviously something is going to happen like the penalty points or you’re going to kill somebody but like when they are showing the advertisement does young people see that ok I could lose my license III not be able to drive the car so socially acceptable where as they could go out for a drink.... Are they more afraid of losing their licence than actually killing someone Jane: I know say if I was out driving along I’m thinking more so like are the Gardas around are you going to get caught as opposed to if I put my foot down am I going to kill someone.... I’m more concerned about the idea o f points as apposed to killing someone. All: Ya Jane: As apposed to if 1 put my foot down am I going to kill somebody and ya don’t think about it that way and I think when you see the ad on the telly and ya heard the banging of the heads together All: ya ya Jane: and it’s horrible but at the same time I think I’m more concerned about the idea of points as apposed to killing somebody. I’m not saying its right but that’s just the way 1 view it Jack: I think people think that they are invincible and maybe they think its not going to happen to them but 1 would be more concerned with getting the points than killing someone. Michael: 1 have slowed down but to be honest I ve only slowed down because o f the penalty points. Elaine: So would most people be more afraid of not being able to go out and drive and meet their friends than o f killing somebody Jack: I think people think their invincible and maybe they think its just not going to happen to them ... more likely to get penalty points Jane: its going to happen its going to happen like Jack: like it would be a freak accident like Michael: see that’s the thing I would say that some of those accidents were freak accidents Elaine: So you don’t think that they are realistic Michael: No No ,Like if someone steps out in front of ya theres a good chance that you’re going to kill him Jack: But that’s because that fella was looking at that girl Jane: Ya but look at your guy driving he was driving and your man just walked out Louise: Ya he hit him from behind in the car Michael: that s a pedestrian ad Louise :ya Michael: Although he was doing the safe cross code Ciara: Like that’s more for to be aware than o f driving wise. Everybody has to be aware like Jane: Ya that it works both ways and that its not just the driver. Pause Elaine: OK Have you ever spoken about those advertisements with your friends? Michael: like the first ad most people refer to that ad even still, but still like I know you re suppose to wear your seatbelt but it especially bought awareness to wearing it in the back Elaine: Would you ask someone to put the seatbelt on because of the ads? Michael: Ya definitely, I would refer to that ad like even years ago if I was in the back I would nt have put my seat belt on but now you re told to wear it. Louise: Like even in a taxi sometimes when I’m sitting in the back they 11 tell you to put your., seatbelt on. Jack: After seeing the ad and ya can hear the banging of the heads there s nothing as worse as that but eh I put my seatbelt on all the time because I know from the ad what could happen if I don’t and it might nt necessarily be my fault. Michael: Ya that’s right Jane: Realistically, Does anyone else feel like a knob sitting in the back of the car with the seatbelt on? Louise: Ya Everyone: Laughs Louise: Ya ya feel like a child Michael: Its not that bad Ciara: ya not when ya see them in the ad Michael: Ya is not bad and plus it’s the law so... Jane: But ya know that if you don’t wear your seatbelt there is a good chance that you could die... .but the drink driving ad does nt make a huge impact Elaine: So do you think that the people that ask you to put your seatbelt on are more concerned about getting stopped and getting penalty points than actually crashing and killing somebody Sarah: Ya Jack: I would say it’s both Everyone: Both Ciara: Ya well nobody thought about it. Ah the seat belts ya don’t really need it. Ah you’re only going down the road Michael: Well ya if you’re only going down the road ya but I put it on for myself Jane: Id feel wrong like. You always kind of feel like theirs something missing here. Ya know that ad they used to have. It was nt on that video but it was a fella, it was one for the road and and his keys were slashed down, he put his keys on the counter.. Sarah: Ya and then the drink all turns to blood Ciara: ya the one where the cars going in to the garden Jane: No it was nt that one it was going back a few years ago and it has a picture of his wife and child visiting his grave Ciara: Yes Jane: And he came down a hill or something like that. I can’t really remember what it was but that was for seatbelts and before it was drink driving. Like you were saying before it was brought in in law everything was aimed at drink driving as apposed to now we ve got the seatbelts and the whole watch what your doing Elaine: So do you think that the ads are portrayed in a realistic manner? Jane: But ya know that kind of if you don’t wear youre seat belt there is a good chance you could die* Sarah: Ya they re there to make you scared to make you put your seatbelt on and not to drive fast. JAck: They re there for a reason so ya kind of have to like as a safety feature so 1 suppose Pause. Elaine: How do you think people feel after watching those ads? Ciara: Well they are a lot more aware after watching the ads Jack: I would flick now if I seen them on, 1 would nt keep them, I would nt watch them. I would actually flick over cause even the song in that one Body to body jesus when you hear that All: Ya Jack: and the cracking of the head All Ya: Michael: When I’m driving around and I think I’m going a little fast I think oh just slow down cause you definitely think of the ads Jane: Ya Michael :If you think you’re going a little fast ya think ya better slow down, put on your seatbelt cause ya just think of all the things that could happen. The ads are so graphic Jane: oes anyone remember the Australian ad? Sarah: Oh.Ya Jane: 1 think it was at a cross road and the fellow was after drinking a load of beer and he was driving along drunk. And he drives through the crosswords and there’s a big articulated truck Jack: Oh go away.. Jane: And he goes straight into it. They don’t do it by half’s over there All: Laugh Pause Elaine: can you identify themes coming out in those advertisements Jack: Well they are all fear appeal advertisements like they are there to scare ya you know what I mean like to make you realise that you can do something wrong with out, you don’t have to like, you don’t necessarily have to be drunk like ya just getting into your car., ya know, if you drive off without your seatbelt on. Jane: Simply eyeing someone up like your man and the van going by AI1:MM Jack; ya sure everybody does it All: Laugh Pause. Elaine: Do you think that those ads are better than other fear appeal advertisements as in... like does anyone know any other fear appeal advertisements Jane: It’s not really a fear appeal advertisement but on some o f the main roads going down the country there’s just these cars. Sarah: Ya ya Jane: Just in along the side of the road that have been organised in that way, they are real cars that have been in accidents and they just show kind o f the damage that can be done Michael: Its a real car on the side of the road All: ya Jane: Its up on a ramp just showing you what can happen Sarah: And people do slow down after seeing them Jane: You do ya kind of go oh jeasus and even in kind of like newspapers., have you ever seen the road carnage headlines on a Monday... like 6 more people killed and they have a picture of the car they ve been in and you’re looking at it going how the.... It’s just completely mangled Michael: Ya like where’s the car Elaine: how do you react when you see those advertisements on TV? Paul: I was just shocked first like, ya can’t imagine it happening until you see it on the screen like the heads bashing o ff each other, I always put on my seatbelt anyway cause like Angela said ya kind o f feel like ya have to .... I have slowed down but to be honest 1 ve only slowed down because o f the penalty points but it would be a combination of the two as well..... especially if I’m in a built up area Elaine: would you switch over or would you watch the whole ad Paul: MMM in the beginning it was more curiosity to watch them to see what happens but I actually don’t watch them now Jack: I would switch over cause I just don’t like watching them. Like some of them are too graphic... well if you’re eating your dinner All: Laugh Jack: it’s just turned off., you’re not going to watch them... and like what Padraig said you know what’s going to happen That way they don’t have a lot of life as in an advertisement and I don’t think that they should be on TV too long either because people, there just passive like when they ve seen it a few times ya know what I mean Elaine: but do you think that after seeing the advertisements for the first time that its jack: Ah ya Elaine: Got people to notice Jack: ya ya ..ya Elaine: Eadaoin would you actually make a point o f getting up and switching the advertisement or would you just continue watching Sarah: well if I actually had to get out of my sit I probably would nt bother All: Laugh Sarah: ya I d just watch it........... Well like if the TV s very far away Id just leave it on but id probably turn my head or something but if the remote was beside me I would change it. Even though I don’t really drive I still know what happens anyway Elaine: Why do you change it? Sarah: I know it does happen like and that but eh Michael: It’s upsetting Sarah: It can be too much sometimes even though the amount of times ya see it..... Ciara: Even though ya know what’s going to happen so you already have already played it through in your head even if you do turn it over., ya can still see what happens Louise: Ya Jane: Ya as soon as it comes on ya don’t want to watch it again Jack: Like it’s the same with those concern ads when you see those kids on the TV ya just go oh jeasus All: Ya Jack: especially when you’re eating your dinner All: Laugh Louise: Ya you just stop what your doing Jack they’re terrible, I think there terrible aswell Pause Elaine: I have one more video to show you Video: Elaine: So what is you re opinion on that advertisement? Jane: 1 know this sounds really bad and I know it’s a shameful ad but I just wonder why the kid has nt been more seriously injured because hes just been squashed by a car Louise yep me too Jane: The man just went flying over him Paul: I was thinking that as well Jack: I always thought that the way the flower is sliced I always thought that the head was going to fly o ff All: laugh Jack: off the kid.. I thought that s what they were showing like ya know what I mean Elaine: So you don’t think that they are a realistic portrayal of what could really happen Jane: I don’t know, I don’t think so Donal its like you re not just going to kill a random kid Its just a random thing to happen All: Laugh Donal: Yahave to do it right, stand there... we re going to knock this car over I don’t like those ads Ldon’t enjoy hearing them but I think that even if you do change channels ya have to see the start of them and ya go oh shit like its one of those ads and then it plays around in your head and lets say you’re walking out the door and ya say oh its one of those ads and you’re getting into your car well they would actually have an influence on you. I would put my seat belt on and I would slow down. Elaine: So if you were driving would you drink and drive Donal: O f course not, it’s against he law. Laugh. Eh no I would nt do that anyway but like I don’t know ... people just forget that like. Ya people think that’s it does nt happen to you like its not going to happen like ... Ill just do this but Its gotta happen to someone though Jane: going against what’s Statistics have proven its older people that would be more like in our parents age who would be doing the drink driving and it’s the young people that do the speeding Michael: the laws not that old like... its only about 15 years like since Jane: Ya... like the drink driving Michael: ya you could drink like 4/5 pints and drive Jane: ya and our parents still carry that idea on Louise: Ya they ve all been driving and driving Jane: And that’s not saying there are the people who drink and drive and the young people are the ones who speed but... that s kind of going against what they’re saying so maybe that will stick in peoples heads and then they don’t relate to the ads. Jane: Going against what statistics have proven it is older people for example in our parents age who would be doing the drink driving and it’s the younger people that do the speeding so in this sense 1 feel that that ad is aimed at the wrong people and therefore I don’t think that it holds (Shame ad) any relevance to me and that can stick in peoples heads when they see the ad,on television Ciara: I agree I think that young people will organise that if they are going out and will be drinking they wont take the car with them whereas older people go out... they just go out with the car they have a couple of drinks and then they drive home they don’t have it planned but they don’t have it planned either for a drinking session ya know Michael: I think its very unacceptable amongst young people to drink and drive... but among older people its alright as nobody questions them and they ve been doing it all their life anyway I feel that that ad does not have any influence on whether or not I would drink and drive its too freak an accident anyway. Elaine: Do you think the older people are more tolerant o f it? Michael: No body questions them Ciara: I think that young people organise that if hey are going to go out and drink so they wont take the car with them where as older people go o u t... they just go out with the car together and they just have a couple of drinks and then they go home they don’t have it planned but they don’t have it planned for a drinking session ya know that kind of way, its not in their heads like to go out drinking for a session so there never organised as much as young people will Jane: Do you know the designated Dessie ad? Ciara: Sorry Jane: the designated Dessie ad Ciara: No what was that Jane: it was kind o f like a joke its like when you come out some ones the designated driver Jack; its like theres another game as well, ya know where ya put your key in to a bpwl and ya take out the key and that’s who you go home with Jane laugh Jack: that’s the designated driver for the night Louise: That’s a good idea is nt it Michael: You could just get a taxi though All: Laugh Jane: Old Bogart here cant really do that so All. Laugh Pause: Elaine: What do you associate with the advertisements....... as in ... Myles at the beginning you mentioned that when you hear the song you think of the advertisement Jack: Well the body-to-body one. If I hear the song it would remind me o f the ad ya know what I mean I associate the two of them together like so I would Elaine: So in regards tothat advertisement how do you think people cope when they see that one..............Do you think its effective? Jane: I think we have the similar opinion in that it’s a bit on the far fetched sided Jack: Ya Jane: so you might just pick that idea out instead and ignore that main point Ciara: I don’t think that it’s far fetched. I can see a car coming through the hedge. I do think it would roll so I do think that it would hit the child around here. It would flatten the kid and the car would go on and the kid would be lying there so it would nt necessarily cut him in half Michael: But like the point..... The general points ... it’s just a freak accident Elaine: So you don’t think that it could happen Michael: No 1 do, definitely ... like I have crashed cars and I have been drinking and then driving, III admit it, so I do believe that it can happen to me but I think that it would be a freak accident to happen to roll the car into a garden and kill a child All: Laugh Michael: but eh ... ya I don’t know.... It’s just a shock Elaine: So people are alert after watching them Donal: I think that people are more alert after watching the ads or having seen them for a split second but I do think they need to be reminded like, kept reminded o f what could happen. Louise: Ya like they ve only been out like in the last few years Angela: But even like... I don’t think they re bad in any way.. It’s a constant reminder to us and we need that like... people are killed every weekend so..... ya know operation lifesaver .. ..ya know the gardai do that operation when the long weekends are on Michael: Ya Jack: If they work and they re effective enough and they decrease the fatalities on the roads ... well then they are good as long as they are screened like shown at the approiate times. Jane: Like they are a great idea like Its always come to the for front the amount o f people that have been killed or if you’re going along... and some twat goes flying by., and ya just miss them.. All: Laugh Elaine: do you think the adverts are informative or do you think that they are so frightening that people just miss the point o f the whole thing? Jane: I don’t think a kid getting knocked over., that you can’t really miss the point in that basically, this is a consequence, it’s necessarily the conscious that you made have if you re speeding or if you were drinking and driving but this is what can happen so . ya get the point overall but the drink' ■*■’* driving ads doesn’t really make a huge impact. Jack: That last ads is just the shame of drink driving is nt it? Jane Ya Louise: Ya the shame Jack: that’s the first time Ive actually like realised that the whole shame thing was on it. I never knew it was called the shame ad Ciara: We really need them because even the smoking ad people don’t realise that all that smoke was getting into you lungs and then they see it and it’s a fact and then they go oh god Donal: That’s very true Ciara: and then it comes up in conversation anyway like ya hear about them even if you don’t see them. Like people do discuss or mention them. You don’t necessarily have to seen them to know of them. And people talk about how graphic they are so you kind o f look out for them then. Jack: Even in turning the channel when the ad comes on is in a way having an effect on people because you know what’s going to happen you might not want to watch it but it does play in your mind. Pause. Elaine: Alright I think everyones tired, Thanks for coming, that’s it its over S' * -4 j t; J ■ u' 1 ■ ' ‘ § H■