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Custom Publishing Dr. Fred Omega Garces Chemistry 100, Miramar College May 2012 1 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Custom Publishing Measurements Chapter 1 2 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Significant Figures vs. Precision How many significant figures do these numbers contain ? 12.000 Significant Figures ? 5 0.105 0.0005020 3600 ?4 ? ?3 2 • Rules of Significant Figures: • Nonzero integers - always count as significant figures. • Zeros – s e l u r e s e h t ng all of the nonzero i z r They never i – Leading zeros - are zeroso that precede digits. r e l p m m e i s m count as significant figures. a t e s i g e r For zeros - are szeros e – Captive that fall between nonzero digits. They all count as h t e u significant figures. a c d e o b h t e – Trailing zeros - are zeros at m the right end of the number. They are significant only if the number contains a decimal point. • Exact numbers - such as tallies or conversion factors have unlimited number of significant figures. 3 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces •To determine the number of Significant Figures • Pacific-Atlantic Rule • Decimal Present vs. Decimal Absent Place the number in the center of the map. If the number has a decimal then determine if the analysis is going to originate from the pacific or the atlantic. Decimal Present Decimal Absent For numbers with a For numbers with a decimal decimal point present, draw a line starting from the pacific to the first point absent, draw a line starting from the Atlantic Place Number here (right) to the first non-zero non-zero number, all digits number, all digits shown shown including the non- including the non-zero zero number are number are significant. significant. i.e., 0.040050 i.e., 30500 0.040050 5 Significant Figures 4 30500 Supplemental Information 3 Significant Figures October 2012, F.Garces Significant Figures exampleUse the Pacific-Atlantic trick to determine the number of significant figures for the following measurents. 12.000 Significant 0.105 ? 12.000 ? 2 three significant figures 0.0005020 5 ?4 five significant figures 0.105 3600 3600 ?3 5 Figures 0.0005020 four significant figures two significant figures Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces What is the difference between Precision & Significant Figures What is the difference between significant figures and precision? For each of the example shown, which between the two numbers contain the fewest significant figures and which is the least precise? . a) b) c) d) 6 123 1.23 0.123 30 vs vs vs vs 1.2 1.200 0.00012 3600 Fewest Significant figures 1.2 1.23 0.00012 30 Supplemental Information Least precise 123 1.23 0.123 3600 October 2012, F.Garces Custom Publishing Heating-Cooling Curve Chapter 2 7 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Heating and Cooling Curve for H2O Energy Calculation for Ice to Steam and vice-versa 8 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Custom Publishing Atoms and Elements Chapter 3 9 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Shells, Orbitals and Energies ∞ s p d f 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 10 Supplemental Information Relative Energies of the orbitals October 2012, F.Garces Noble Gas Notation for Electron Configuration. “Shorthand Notation” (ne-Va-s-p) The noble gas notation for electron configuration is a way of writing the electron configuration for an element using the symbol of the noble gas to represent the “core” inner electrons. Consider the example below for sulfur below. 1 IA S - shell of valence electrons = 3 13 1 H 1s1 2 IIA 2 Li 2s1 Be 2s2 3 Na 3s1 Mg 3s2 3 IIIB 4 IVB 4 K 4s1 Ca 4s2 Sc 3d1 V Ti Cr Mn 3d2 3d3 4s13d5 3d5 5 Rb 5s1 Sr 5s2 Y 4d1 6 Cs 6s1 Ba 6s2 7 Fr 7s1 Ra 7s2 16 VIA 17 VIIA B 2p1 C N O 2p2 2p3 2p4 F 2p5 Ne 2p6 Al 3p1 Si 3p2 P S S 3p3 3p4 Cl 3p5 Ar 3p6 IIIA 5 VB 6 VIB 7 VIIB 8 9 VIIIB 10 11 IB 12 IIB 14 IVA 15 VA Va - valence electrons; the number of valence electrons 18 VIIIA =6 He 1s2 Ni 3d8 Cu 4s13d10 Zn Ga 3d10 4p1 Ge 4p2 As 4p3 Se 4p4 Be 4p5 Kr 4p6 Nb Mo Tc Ru Zr 4d2 4d3 5s14d5 4d5 4d6 Rh Ni 4d7 4d8 Ag 5s14d10 Cd In 4d10 5p1 Sn 5p2 Sb 5p3 Te 5p4 I 5p5 Xe 5p6 La 5d1 Hf Ta W Re Os 5d2 5d3 6s15d5 5d5 5d6 Ir Ni 5d7 5d8 Au 6s15d10 Hg Tl 5d10 6p1 Pb 6p2 Bi Po At 6p3 6p4 6p5 Rn 6p6 Ac 6d1 Db 6d2 Bh Jl Rf 6d3 7s16d5 6d5 Fe Co 3d6 3d7 Hn Mt 6d6 6d7 p - previous noble gas = Ne (10 e-) ne - number of electrons; the total number of electrons; this equals the number of protons or atomic number = #e for noble gas + Va = 16 electron configuration for Sulfur: S = [p] s (orbital) Va = [Ne] 3s2 3p4 ne = 10 + (3 + 4) = 16 Total electrons 11 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Comparing Noble gas electron configuration to energy level diagram for an atom. • The 16 electrons for sulfur occupy the shells & orbitals of sulfur from the lowest energy to the highest. e- config for Sulfur S = [Ne]3s23p4 ∞ p s f d 8 7 6 5 4 3 Relative Energies of the orbitals and the filling order. S 2 16 total electrons 1 12 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Custom Publishing Nuclear Chemistry Chapter 4 13 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Nuclear Chemistry: Nomenclature 14 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Custom Publishing Compounds and Their Bonds Chapter 5 15 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Charge of Elemental Ions The common charge or oxidation state of many main group and some transition metals elements can be determine by the a basic knowledge of the periodic table 16 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Oxyions... the `ate XO3chg BO3-3 CO3-2 NO3- O F Ne Al Si PO4-3 SO4-2 ClO3- Ar Ga Ge AsO4-3 SeO4-2 BrO3- Kr Sn Sb TeO4-2 IO3- Xe Pb Bi Po At Rn -3 -2 3BOIn 3 Tl 17 XO4chg -1 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Oxy-ions and oxy-Acids Nomenclature Remember the -ate ions and start nomenclature from there. Oxy-anions per -ate Oxy-acids Add H+ per -ic acid Add H+ -ic acid Add H+ -ous acid Add H+ hypo -ous acid Add [O] -ate minus [O] -ite Minus [O] hypo -ite 18 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Example of oxy ion salt and oxy acids. Oxy-anions NaClO4 Sodium perchlorate Per -ate Oxy-acids HClO4 Perchloric acid Add H+ Per -ic acid Add H+ -ic acid HClO3 Chloric acid Add H+ -ous acid HClO2 Chorous acid hypo -ous acid HClO Hypochlorous acid Add [O] NaClO3 Sodium chlorate -ate minus [O] NaClO2 Sodium chlorite -ite Minus [O] NaClO Sodium hypochlorite 19 Hypo -ite Add H+ Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces ... helpful hints about anions -ide elemental ions X-m P-3 phosphide As-3 arsenide S-2 sulfide Se-2 selenide N-3 nitride Cl- chloride Br- bromide I- iodide 20 -ate oxy ions XOn-m -ite oxy ions XOn-1-m PO4-3 phosphate AsO4-3 arsenate SO4-2 sulfate SeO4-2 selenate NO3- nitrate ClO3- chlorate BrO3- bromate IO3- iodate PO3-3 phosphite AsO3-3 arsenite SO3-2 sulfite SeO3-2 selenite NO2- nitrite ClO2- chlorite BrO2- bromite IO2- iodite Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Group VII Family of oxyions Group IV Group V Group VI Boron BO3-3 Nitrogen NO3- nitrate NO2- nitrite Sulfur SO4-2 SO3-2 borate Carbon CO3-2 carbonate Phosphorus PO4-3 phosphate PO3-3 phosphite Arsenic AsO4-3 AsO3-3 21 Arsenate Arsenite . sulfate sulfite Selenium SeO4-2 SeO3-2 selenate selenite Tellurium TeO4-2 Tellurate TeO3-2 Tellurite Supplemental Information Chlorine ClO4- perchlorate ClO3- chlorate ClO2- chlorite ClO- hypochlorite Bromine BrO4- perbromate BrO3- bromate BrO2- bromite BrO- hypobromite Iodine IO4- periodate IO3- iodate IO2- iodite IO- hypoiodite October 2012, F.Garces Determining Type (I, II, III) of Compound Show me the metal !! Type I or Type II Yes Is the metal Group I, II or Al, + Zn, Cd and Ag (NH4 ) Type I N o N o Yes metal-nonmetal Type II metal(Ox.#)-nonmetal Type III (Prefix)nonmetal1 (Prefix)nonmetal2 22 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Type I, II and III Type Elemental anion Polyatomic anion I (Metal - nonMetal) Cation - Anion(ide) Cation - Anion Cation; Rep Metal Cation - Anion II (Metal - nonMetal) (Transition) metal Cations (Oxid #) – Anion Old method (Fe+3 vs Fe+2) higher ox.st. -ic lower ox. st. -ous Al2O3; Aluminum oxide Ag2S; Silver sulfide Cd(NO3)2: cadmium nitrate (NH3)2SO4: ammonium sulfate Cation (oxidation state) Anion(ide) Cation (oxidation state) Anion FeCl3; Iron(III) chloride Sn(C2H3O2)2; Tin(II) acetate PbS2; Lead(IV) sulfide Cation(ic) - Anion(ide) Au3PO3; Gold(I) phosphite Cation(ous) – Anion(ide) Cation(ous) – Polyatomic anion Cation(ic) – Polyatomic anion FeBr3 ; Ferrric bromide Iron(III) bromide Fe(NO3)3 ; Ferric nitrate Iron(III) nitrate Fe(NO2)2 ; Ferrrous nitrite Iron(II) nitrite Fe3N2 ; Ferrrous nitride Iron(II) nitride III Molecular compounds Compounds which contains nonmetal (Prefix ) nonmetal 1 (Prefix ) nonmetal 2 23 (Prefix) nonmetal 1 - (Prefix) nonmetal 2 (ide) • Prefixes are indication of the number of atoms: mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa• order of naming nonmetal 1 & nonmetal (ide)2 nonmetal 1 is to the left and bottom of nonmetal 2 based on it is named first in the nomenclature scheme. Si - C - As - P - N - H - Se - S - I - Br - Cl - O - F • S & 3 O forms SO3 ; Sulfur trioxide • 2 P & 5 O forms P2O2 ; Diphosphorus pentaoxide Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Lewis Structure via Bond Table 1. (Connectivity) From the Chemical Formula, determine the atom connectivity for the structure. i. Given a chemical formula, ABn, A is generally the central atom and B flanks the A atom. i.e., NH3, NCl3, NO2. In these examples, N is central in each structure. ii. H and F are never central atoms even if their elemental symbol is first, i.e., H2O. 2. (# of Bond) Determine the number of bonds in the compound, by calculating the theoretical Octet electrons (Oe) minus the total valence electrons (TVe). Oe is the theoretical number of electrons necessary for each atom in the structure to obtain a Noble Gas electron configuration, while TVe is the actual number of total valence electron for each atom in the structure. 3. (Remaining e-) Calculate the number of remaining electrons in the compound by taking the total valence electron (TVe) minus the number of electrons that was used to form bonds. Complete Lewis structure by drawing atomic connectivity. Write bonds in the structure and the place remaining electrons to selected atoms in the structure to give each atom an octet. Keep in mind that the H-atom is satisfied with 2 electrons. 24 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Lewis Dot Structure of ClO4- by Bonds Table A. Calculate (Oe-) and (TVe) ClO4- Oe 1 Cl 1•(8)= 8 1•(7) = 7 4 O 4•(8)= 32 4•(6)= 24 Chg Tve B. Number of Bonds. # bonds 32 Writing the Lewis Structure: 1. Write atom connectivity for ClO4-. O O Cl O 2. Draw the four bonds in the structure. 3. Place the remaining 24 electrons in the structure such that each atom has an octet to complete the Lewis Structure O O O Cl O O O Cl O 25 = 8 = 4 bonds 2 C. Remaining electrons. Remaining e- = 32 – 8 = 24 e- Remaining 1 40 = (40- 32) 2 Supplemental Information O O October 2012, F.Garces Lewis Structure Summary Compounds, elements comes together: i) electrons are shared between elements •if there is mutually sharing, covalent compounds forms •if there is unequal sharing, polar covalent compounds forms. ii) electron transfer occurs, ionic compounds forms (next section). Lewis Structure Determination: i) Molecular Formula ii) Atomic Sequence (H and F are terminal) iii) Determine the # of bonds Oe- and TVe# of Bonds = (Oe - TVe-) / 2 iv) Determine remaining electrons Re = (TVe-) - (# e- in bonding) v) Make sure all atoms satisfy octet rule (Except H which is satisfied with 2 electrons) 26 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces VSEPR Table • Molecular Geometry Determination Guide Valoence Shell Electron Pair Reuplsion (VSEPR) Table 27 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Determining Molecular Polarity Flowchart How many central atoms in the structure? 1 only 2 or more Are there lone pairs on any central atom? Are there lone pairs on central atom? Yes No Yes Are all terminal atoms the same element? Polar* No Are all central atoms the same element? Polar* O O O No O Polar* H C H Yes C O H Yes No Polar Are all terminal atoms the same element? Non-polar O F .. O .. No B F *This is true for everything that has up to 4 regions of electron density (i.e., what we’re studying in this class). It may not be true for other structures, such as an octahedron. 28 H Yes C F H2N Polar. The symmetry determines polarity Non-polar .. : Br .. Supplemental Information NH2 C C .. Br .. : October 2012, F.Garces Intermolecular Forces: Relative Strength Interaction ion- ion Covalent Bonds ion-dipole (I-D) dipole - dipole (D-D) dipole - induce dipole (D-ID) London Dispersion (LD) Example Na+ ClH - H Na+ HCl HCl HCl HCl O2 N2 N2 Energy 400 - 4000 kJ 150-1100 kJ 40-600 kJ 5-25 kJ 2-10 kJ 0.05 - 40 kJ • H-Bond (10- 40 kJ/mol 29 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Custom Publishing Chemical Reactions and Quantities Chapter 6 30 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Stoichiometry Map 1 Mass (g) Molar Mass (g / mol) Solid phase Vol (L) Pressure (atm) D Molar Mass (g / mol) Solid phase Balance equation Moles A ←#########→ MolesB Stoic. coefficient . Aqueous phase R (.0821 Volume (L) Mass (g) Conc. (mol / L) Aqueous phase Vol (L) atm • L mol • K ) R (.0821 atm • L mol • K 4 1Pressure (atm ) (g)Gas phase Gas phase Temperature (K) Vol (L) Liquid ( l ) phase Density (g / cc) N Av (6.02 •1023 ) particle (atomic) phase N (6.02 •1023 ) particle Av (atomic) phase Conc. (mol / L) A # of molecules / atoms # of molecules / atoms Vol ( L) Liquid phase Density (g / cc) ) Temperature (K) Volume ( L ) E 2 5 B C 31 F 3 Supplemental Information 6 October 2012, F.Garces Stoichiometry Map 2 32 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Solubility Rules Soluble Substances ContainingNitrates (NO3-) Perchlorates (ClO4-) Acetates (CH3CO2-) Halogens (X-) Cl-, Br-, I- Insoluble Substances Containing- Exceptions Carbonates (CO32-) None Chromates (CrO42-) Phosphates (PO43-) Sulfides (S2-) Ag, Hg & Pb. Sulfates (SO42- ) Alkali (Group1A) NH4+ Exceptions Alkali and NH4+ Ca, Ba, Sr, Alkali & NH4+ Hydroxides (OH- ) Soluble - dissolve, no precipitate (aq -phase) insoluble (or slightly sol.) - does not dissolve, precipitate forms. (s-phase) Ca, Ba, Hg and Pb None Double Displacement Type Reaction: Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2KOH(aq) D ? a) Molecular equation: Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2KOH(aq) D 2KNO3(aq) + Mg(OH)2 (s) b) Complete ionic equation: Mg2+(aq) + 2 NO3- (aq) + 2 K+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) D 2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3- (aq) + Mg(OH)2 (s) c) Net ionic equation: Mg2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) D Mg(OH)2 (s) 33 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Custom Publishing Solutions Chapter 8 34 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Concentrations and Dilutions • Ways of expressing concentration– Molarity(M) - moles solute / Liter solution – Concentration by parts -Mass percent,% m (m:m)- (grams solute/Total grams of solution) *100 g pph -Mass-Vol percent, (m:v)- (grams solute/ Total ml volume solution) *100g pph -Vol-vol percent, (v:v)- (volume ml solute/ Total ml volume solution) *100g pph Note that if the multiplier is 1•106 instead of 100, then the unit is ppm. ppm (m:m) = (grams solute/Total grams of solution) x 1•106 g ppm If the multiplier is 109, then the unit is ppb. ppb (m:m) = (grams solute/Total grams of solution) x 1•109 g ppb -Dilution 35 Equation: C1•V1 = C2•V2 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Custom Publishing Acid and Bases Chapter 10 36 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces Determining pH, pOH, [OH-], [H3O+] Use this chart to determine acid and base concentration at (25°C) Kw = 1.0 •10-14 & pKw = 14.00 [H3O+] • [OH-] = Kw [H3O+] & pH + pOH = pKw Kw/ [H3O+] • [OH -] = Kw [OH-] Kw/ -log [H3O+] 10-pH -log 10-pOH 14.00 - pH pH + pOH= pKw 14.00 - pOH 37 Supplemental Information October 2012, F.Garces