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Dr. Fred Omega Garces
Chemistry 100, Miramar College
May 2012
1
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October 2012,
F.Garces
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Measurements
Chapter 1
2
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Significant Figures vs. Precision
How many significant figures do these numbers contain ?
12.000
Significant
Figures
?
5
0.105
0.0005020
3600
?4
?
?3
2
•  Rules of Significant Figures:
•  Nonzero integers - always count as significant figures.
•  Zeros –
s
e
l
u
r
e
s
e
h
t
ng all of the nonzero
i
z
r They never
i
–  Leading zeros - are zeroso
that
precede
digits.
r
e
l
p
m
m
e
i
s
m
count as significant
figures.
a
t
e
s
i
g
e
r
For zeros - are szeros
e
–  Captive
that
fall
between nonzero digits. They all count as
h
t
e
u
significant figures.
a
c
d
e
o
b
h
t
e
–  Trailing zeros - are zeros at m
the right end of the number. They are
significant only if the number contains a decimal point.
•  Exact numbers - such as tallies or conversion factors have unlimited
number of significant figures.
3
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October 2012,
F.Garces
•To determine the number of Significant Figures
•  Pacific-Atlantic Rule
•  Decimal Present vs. Decimal Absent
Place the number in the center of the map.
If the number has a decimal then determine if the analysis is going to
originate from the pacific or the atlantic.
Decimal Present
Decimal Absent
For numbers with a
For numbers with a decimal
decimal point present,
draw a line starting from
the pacific to the first
point absent, draw a line
starting from the Atlantic
Place Number here
(right) to the first non-zero
non-zero number, all digits
number, all digits shown
shown including the non-
including the non-zero
zero number are
number are significant.
significant. i.e., 0.040050
i.e., 30500
0.040050
5 Significant Figures
4
30500
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3 Significant Figures
October 2012,
F.Garces
Significant Figures exampleUse the Pacific-Atlantic trick to determine the number of significant
figures for the following measurents.
12.000
Significant
0.105
?
12.000
?
2
three significant figures
0.0005020
5
?4
five significant figures
0.105
3600
3600
?3
5
Figures
0.0005020
four significant figures
two significant figures
Supplemental Information
October 2012,
F.Garces
What is the difference between
Precision & Significant Figures
What is the difference between significant figures and precision? For
each of the example shown, which between the two numbers contain the
fewest significant figures and which is the least precise?
.
a)
b)
c)
d)
6
123
1.23
0.123
30
vs
vs
vs
vs
1.2
1.200
0.00012
3600
Fewest Significant figures
1.2
1.23
0.00012
30
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Least precise
123
1.23
0.123
3600
October 2012,
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Heating-Cooling Curve
Chapter 2
7
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October 2012,
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Heating and Cooling Curve for H2O
Energy Calculation for Ice to Steam and vice-versa
8
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October 2012,
F.Garces
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Atoms and Elements
Chapter 3
9
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Shells, Orbitals and Energies
∞
s
p
d
f
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
10
Supplemental Information
Relative
Energies of
the orbitals
October 2012,
F.Garces
Noble Gas Notation for Electron Configuration.
“Shorthand Notation” (ne-Va-s-p)
The noble gas notation for electron configuration is a way of writing the electron
configuration for an element using the symbol of the noble gas to represent the
“core” inner electrons. Consider the example below for sulfur below.
1
IA
S - shell of valence electrons
= 3
13
1
H
1s1
2
IIA
2
Li
2s1
Be
2s2
3
Na
3s1
Mg
3s2
3
IIIB
4
IVB
4
K
4s1
Ca
4s2
Sc
3d1
V
Ti
Cr Mn
3d2 3d3 4s13d5 3d5
5
Rb
5s1
Sr
5s2
Y
4d1
6
Cs
6s1
Ba
6s2
7
Fr
7s1
Ra
7s2
16
VIA
17
VIIA
B
2p1
C
N
O
2p2 2p3 2p4
F
2p5
Ne
2p6
Al
3p1
Si
3p2
P
S
S
3p3 3p4
Cl
3p5
Ar
3p6
IIIA
5
VB
6
VIB
7
VIIB
8
9
VIIIB
10
11
IB
12
IIB
14
IVA
15
VA
Va - valence electrons; the
number of valence electrons
18
VIIIA
=6
He
1s2
Ni
3d8
Cu
4s13d10
Zn
Ga
3d10 4p1
Ge
4p2
As
4p3
Se
4p4
Be
4p5
Kr
4p6
Nb Mo Tc Ru
Zr
4d2 4d3 5s14d5 4d5 4d6
Rh Ni
4d7 4d8
Ag
5s14d10
Cd
In
4d10 5p1
Sn
5p2
Sb
5p3
Te
5p4
I
5p5
Xe
5p6
La
5d1
Hf Ta
W Re Os
5d2 5d3 6s15d5 5d5 5d6
Ir
Ni
5d7 5d8
Au
6s15d10
Hg
Tl
5d10 6p1
Pb
6p2
Bi
Po At
6p3 6p4 6p5
Rn
6p6
Ac
6d1
Db
6d2
Bh
Jl
Rf
6d3 7s16d5 6d5
Fe Co
3d6 3d7
Hn Mt
6d6 6d7
p - previous noble gas
= Ne (10 e-)
ne - number of electrons; the
total number of electrons;
this equals the number of
protons or atomic number
= #e for noble gas + Va = 16
electron configuration for Sulfur:
S = [p] s (orbital) Va = [Ne] 3s2 3p4
ne = 10 + (3 + 4) = 16 Total electrons
11
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Comparing Noble gas electron configuration to
energy level diagram for an atom.
• The 16 electrons for sulfur
occupy the shells & orbitals of
sulfur from the lowest energy
to the highest.
e- config for Sulfur
S = [Ne]3s23p4
∞
p
s
f
d
8
7
6
5
4
3
Relative
Energies
of the
orbitals
and the
filling
order.
S
2
16 total electrons
1
12
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October 2012,
F.Garces
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Nuclear Chemistry
Chapter 4
13
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October 2012,
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Nuclear Chemistry: Nomenclature
14
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October 2012,
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Compounds and Their Bonds
Chapter 5
15
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Charge of Elemental Ions
The
common
charge or
oxidation
state of
many main
group and
some
transition
metals
elements
can be
determine
by the a
basic
knowledge
of the
periodic
table
16
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Oxyions... the `ate
XO3chg
BO3-3
CO3-2
NO3-
O
F
Ne
Al
Si
PO4-3
SO4-2
ClO3-
Ar
Ga
Ge
AsO4-3
SeO4-2
BrO3-
Kr
Sn
Sb
TeO4-2
IO3-
Xe
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
-3
-2
3BOIn
3
Tl
17
XO4chg
-1
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Oxy-ions and oxy-Acids Nomenclature
Remember the -ate
ions and start
nomenclature from
there.
Oxy-anions
per -ate
Oxy-acids
Add H+
per -ic acid
Add H+
-ic acid
Add H+
-ous acid
Add H+
hypo -ous acid
Add [O]
-ate
minus [O]
-ite
Minus [O]
hypo -ite
18
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Example of oxy ion salt and oxy acids.
Oxy-anions
NaClO4
Sodium perchlorate
Per -ate
Oxy-acids
HClO4
Perchloric acid
Add H+
Per -ic acid
Add H+
-ic acid
HClO3
Chloric acid
Add H+
-ous acid
HClO2
Chorous acid
hypo -ous acid
HClO
Hypochlorous
acid
Add [O]
NaClO3
Sodium chlorate
-ate
minus [O]
NaClO2
Sodium chlorite
-ite
Minus [O]
NaClO
Sodium hypochlorite
19
Hypo -ite
Add H+
Supplemental Information
October 2012,
F.Garces
... helpful hints about anions
-ide
elemental ions
X-m
P-3 phosphide
As-3 arsenide
S-2 sulfide
Se-2 selenide
N-3 nitride
Cl- chloride
Br- bromide
I- iodide
20
-ate
oxy ions
XOn-m
-ite
oxy ions
XOn-1-m
PO4-3 phosphate
AsO4-3 arsenate
SO4-2 sulfate
SeO4-2 selenate
NO3- nitrate
ClO3- chlorate
BrO3- bromate
IO3- iodate
PO3-3 phosphite
AsO3-3 arsenite
SO3-2 sulfite
SeO3-2 selenite
NO2- nitrite
ClO2- chlorite
BrO2- bromite
IO2- iodite
Supplemental Information
October 2012,
F.Garces
Group VII
Family of oxyions
Group IV
Group V
Group VI
Boron
BO3-3
Nitrogen
NO3- nitrate
NO2- nitrite
Sulfur
SO4-2
SO3-2
borate
Carbon
CO3-2
carbonate
Phosphorus
PO4-3 phosphate
PO3-3 phosphite
Arsenic
AsO4-3
AsO3-3
21
Arsenate
Arsenite
.
sulfate
sulfite
Selenium
SeO4-2
SeO3-2
selenate
selenite
Tellurium
TeO4-2 Tellurate
TeO3-2 Tellurite
Supplemental Information
Chlorine
ClO4- perchlorate
ClO3- chlorate
ClO2- chlorite
ClO- hypochlorite
Bromine
BrO4- perbromate
BrO3- bromate
BrO2- bromite
BrO- hypobromite
Iodine
IO4- periodate
IO3- iodate
IO2- iodite
IO- hypoiodite
October 2012,
F.Garces
Determining Type (I, II, III) of Compound
Show me the metal !!
Type I or Type II
Yes
Is the metal
Group I, II or Al,
+
Zn, Cd and Ag (NH4 )
Type I
N o
N o
Yes
metal-nonmetal
Type II
metal(Ox.#)-nonmetal
Type III
(Prefix)nonmetal1 (Prefix)nonmetal2
22
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Type I, II and III
Type
Elemental anion
Polyatomic anion
I (Metal - nonMetal)
Cation - Anion(ide)
Cation - Anion
Cation; Rep Metal
Cation - Anion
II (Metal - nonMetal)
(Transition) metal
Cations (Oxid #) – Anion
Old method (Fe+3 vs Fe+2)
higher ox.st. -ic
lower ox. st. -ous
Al2O3; Aluminum oxide
Ag2S; Silver sulfide
Cd(NO3)2: cadmium nitrate
(NH3)2SO4: ammonium sulfate
Cation (oxidation state) Anion(ide)
Cation (oxidation state) Anion
FeCl3; Iron(III) chloride
Sn(C2H3O2)2; Tin(II) acetate
PbS2; Lead(IV) sulfide
Cation(ic) - Anion(ide)
Au3PO3; Gold(I) phosphite
Cation(ous) – Anion(ide)
Cation(ous) – Polyatomic anion
Cation(ic) – Polyatomic anion
FeBr3 ; Ferrric bromide
Iron(III) bromide
Fe(NO3)3 ; Ferric nitrate
Iron(III) nitrate
Fe(NO2)2 ; Ferrrous nitrite
Iron(II) nitrite
Fe3N2 ; Ferrrous nitride
Iron(II) nitride
III Molecular compounds Compounds which contains nonmetal
(Prefix ) nonmetal 1 (Prefix ) nonmetal 2
23
(Prefix) nonmetal 1 - (Prefix) nonmetal 2 (ide)
• Prefixes are indication of the number of atoms:
mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa• order of naming nonmetal 1 & nonmetal (ide)2
nonmetal 1 is to the left and bottom of nonmetal 2
based on it is named first in the nomenclature scheme.
Si - C - As - P - N - H - Se - S - I - Br - Cl - O - F
• S & 3 O forms SO3 ; Sulfur trioxide
• 2 P & 5 O forms P2O2 ; Diphosphorus pentaoxide
Supplemental Information
October 2012,
F.Garces
Lewis Structure via Bond Table
1.
(Connectivity) From the Chemical Formula, determine the atom connectivity
for the structure.
i. Given a chemical formula, ABn, A is generally the central atom and B flanks the A
atom. i.e., NH3, NCl3, NO2. In these examples, N is central in each structure.
ii. H and F are never central atoms even if their elemental symbol is first, i.e., H2O.
2.
(# of Bond) Determine the number of bonds in the compound, by calculating
the theoretical Octet electrons (Oe) minus the total valence electrons (TVe).
Oe is the theoretical number of electrons necessary for each atom in the structure to
obtain a Noble Gas electron configuration, while TVe is the actual number of total
valence electron for each atom in the structure.
3.
(Remaining e-) Calculate the number of remaining electrons in the compound
by taking the total valence electron (TVe) minus the number of electrons that
was used to form bonds.
Complete Lewis structure by drawing atomic connectivity. Write
bonds in the structure and the place remaining electrons to selected
atoms in the structure to give each atom an octet. Keep in mind
that the H-atom is satisfied with 2 electrons.
24
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Lewis Dot Structure of ClO4- by Bonds Table
A. Calculate (Oe-) and (TVe)
ClO4-
Oe
1 Cl
1•(8)= 8
1•(7) = 7
4 O
4•(8)= 32
4•(6)= 24
Chg
Tve
B. Number of Bonds.
# bonds
32
Writing the Lewis Structure:
1. Write atom connectivity
for ClO4-.
O
O
Cl
O
2. Draw the four
bonds in the
structure.
3. Place the remaining 24 electrons in
the structure such that each atom has
an octet to complete the Lewis
Structure
O
O
O Cl
O
O
O Cl
O
25
= 8 = 4 bonds
2
C. Remaining electrons.
Remaining e- = 32 – 8 = 24 e- Remaining
1
40
= (40- 32)
2
Supplemental Information
O
O
October 2012,
F.Garces
Lewis Structure Summary
Compounds, elements comes together:
i) electrons are shared between elements
•if there is mutually sharing, covalent compounds forms
•if there is unequal sharing, polar covalent compounds forms.
ii) electron transfer occurs, ionic compounds forms (next section).
Lewis Structure Determination:
i) Molecular Formula
ii) Atomic Sequence (H and F are terminal)
iii) Determine the # of bonds
Oe- and TVe# of Bonds = (Oe - TVe-) / 2
iv) Determine remaining electrons
Re = (TVe-) - (# e- in bonding)
v) Make sure all atoms satisfy octet rule
(Except H which is satisfied with 2 electrons)
26
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October 2012,
F.Garces
VSEPR Table
•  Molecular Geometry Determination Guide
Valoence Shell Electron Pair Reuplsion (VSEPR) Table
27
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Determining Molecular Polarity Flowchart
How many central atoms in the structure?
1 only
2 or more
Are there lone pairs
on any central atom?
Are there lone pairs
on central atom?
Yes
No
Yes
Are all terminal atoms
the same element?
Polar*
No
Are all central atoms
the same element?
Polar*
O
O
O
No
O
Polar*
H
C
H
Yes
C
O
H
Yes
No
Polar
Are all terminal atoms
the same element?
Non-polar
O
F
..
O
..
No
B
F
*This is true for everything that has up to 4 regions
of electron density (i.e., what we’re studying in this
class). It may not be true for other structures, such
as an octahedron.
28
H
Yes
C
F
H2N
Polar. The symmetry
determines polarity
Non-polar
..
: Br
..
Supplemental Information
NH2
C
C
..
Br
.. :
October 2012,
F.Garces
Intermolecular Forces: Relative Strength
Interaction
ion- ion
Covalent Bonds
ion-dipole (I-D)
dipole - dipole (D-D)
dipole - induce dipole (D-ID)
London Dispersion (LD)
Example
Na+ ClH - H
Na+ HCl
HCl HCl
HCl O2
N2 N2
Energy
400 - 4000 kJ
150-1100 kJ
40-600 kJ
5-25 kJ
2-10 kJ
0.05 - 40 kJ
• H-Bond (10- 40 kJ/mol
29
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Custom Publishing
Chemical Reactions and Quantities
Chapter 6
30
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Stoichiometry Map 1
Mass (g)
Molar Mass (g / mol)
Solid phase
Vol (L)
Pressure (atm)
D
Molar Mass (g / mol)
Solid phase
Balance equation
Moles A ←#########→ MolesB
Stoic. coefficient .
Aqueous
phase
R (.0821
Volume (L)
Mass (g)
Conc. (mol / L)
Aqueous
phase
Vol (L)
atm • L
mol • K
)
R (.0821
atm • L
mol • K
4
1Pressure (atm )
(g)Gas phase
Gas phase
Temperature (K)
Vol (L)
Liquid ( l )
phase
Density (g / cc)
N Av (6.02 •1023 ) particle
(atomic) phase
N (6.02 •1023 )
particle Av
(atomic) phase
Conc. (mol / L)
A
# of molecules / atoms
# of molecules / atoms
Vol ( L)
Liquid
phase
Density (g / cc)
)
Temperature (K)
Volume ( L )
E
2
5
B
C
31
F
3
Supplemental Information
6
October 2012,
F.Garces
Stoichiometry Map 2
32
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Solubility Rules
Soluble Substances
ContainingNitrates (NO3-)
Perchlorates (ClO4-)
Acetates (CH3CO2-)
Halogens (X-)
Cl-, Br-, I-
Insoluble Substances
Containing-
Exceptions
Carbonates (CO32-)
None
Chromates (CrO42-)
Phosphates (PO43-)
Sulfides (S2-)
Ag, Hg & Pb.
Sulfates (SO42- )
Alkali (Group1A)
NH4+
Exceptions
Alkali and NH4+
Ca, Ba, Sr, Alkali & NH4+
Hydroxides (OH- )
Soluble - dissolve, no precipitate (aq -phase)
insoluble (or slightly sol.) - does not dissolve,
precipitate forms. (s-phase)
Ca, Ba, Hg and Pb
None
Double Displacement Type Reaction:
Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2KOH(aq) D
?
a) Molecular equation:
Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2KOH(aq) D 2KNO3(aq) + Mg(OH)2
(s)
b) Complete ionic equation:
Mg2+(aq) + 2 NO3- (aq) + 2 K+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) D 2 K+(aq) + 2 NO3- (aq) + Mg(OH)2 (s)
c) Net ionic equation:
Mg2+(aq) + 2 OH-(aq) D Mg(OH)2 (s)
33
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Custom Publishing
Solutions
Chapter 8
34
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Concentrations and Dilutions
• Ways of expressing concentration– Molarity(M) -
moles solute / Liter solution
– Concentration by parts
-Mass percent,% m (m:m)- (grams solute/Total grams of solution) *100 g pph
-Mass-Vol percent, (m:v)- (grams solute/ Total ml volume solution) *100g pph
-Vol-vol percent, (v:v)- (volume ml solute/ Total ml volume solution) *100g pph
Note that if the multiplier is 1•106 instead of 100, then the unit is ppm.
ppm (m:m) = (grams solute/Total grams of solution) x 1•106 g ppm
If the multiplier is 109, then the unit is ppb.
ppb (m:m) = (grams solute/Total grams of solution) x 1•109 g ppb
-Dilution
35
Equation:
C1•V1 = C2•V2
Supplemental Information
October 2012,
F.Garces
Custom Publishing
Acid and Bases
Chapter 10
36
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October 2012,
F.Garces
Determining pH, pOH, [OH-], [H3O+]
Use this chart to determine acid and base concentration at (25°C)
Kw = 1.0 •10-14 & pKw = 14.00
[H3O+] • [OH-] = Kw
[H3O+]
&
pH + pOH = pKw
Kw/
[H3O+] • [OH -] = Kw
[OH-]
Kw/
-log [H3O+]
10-pH
-log
10-pOH
14.00 - pH
pH + pOH= pKw
14.00 - pOH
37
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October 2012,
F.Garces