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The Roman Republic
From a small village to an
empire
The Geography of Italy
 The topography of the Italian
peninsula is varied;
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The Italian peninsula resembles a boot.
Sicily, an island located to the south of
the mainland, is rough and mountainous.
Corsica and Sardinia are large islands
located off the western coast.
The alpine mountains (Alps) form a
natural border across the northern part of
Italy.
Geography Con’t:
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The Apennine mountains run down the
center of Italy much like a spine.
The Po River valley lies south of the Alps
and is a fertile agricultural area.
The coastal areas of southern Italy are
swampy, disease-ridden, and not very
productive areas.
Geography Con’t:
 The rivers of Italy also affected the
development of the Roman
civilization;
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The Po River, lying in the northern
plains, was the primary agricultural
center.
The Rubicon River if the traditional
northern border between Rome and the
barbarian lands to the north.
The Tiber River, on which the city of
Rome was built, is small and of little use.
Geography Con’t:
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Most rivers in Italy ended in delta areas
which were swampy and disease-ridden.
The rivers are for the most part not
navigable.
There are few good natural harbors on
the Italian peninsula.
Geography Con’t:
 The climate of Italy is conducive to
good food production;
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The climate is temperate with the
growing season lasting all year in the
south. (Less the farther north you travel)
There is ample rainfall in the north, dry
in the south.
Grain crops, Livestock, and vegetables
are raised in the northern farmlands.
S. Italy raises grapes, fruits, and olives.
The Etruscans
 The earliest known civilization of the
Italian peninsula were the Etruscans;
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The Etruscan civilization flourished C.
1000 to 500 BC.
They probably came from the Balkan area
between the Black Sea and the Caspian
Sea.
They displaced an early culture known as
the “Latins” which were still neolithic.
The Etruscans Con’t:
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According to legend, the 1st kings were
the twins Romulus and Remus;
• They were supposedly raised by a she wolf
and were the founders of the city of Rome.
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By 600 BC, the Etruscan civilization was
at its height.
A dynasty of kings known as the
Tarquins ruled during the apex of the
civilization.
The last Tarquin fell from power in 505
BC.
The Etruscans Con’t:
 The Etruscan civilization is clouded in
Mystery;
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Frescos, which were colorful and full of
active images, provide us with most of
our knowledge of their civilization.
A writing existed, which appears similar
to Hittite, but has not been deciphered.
Evidence supports a theory that they were
very religious and relied on prophets.
Their cities were small, walled villages.
The Etruscans Con’t:
 The Etruscans fell from power as
rapidly as they rose;
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A coalition of Italian city-states rebelled
against Etruscan rule late in the 6th
century BC.
The last Tarquin was a despot who was
hated by the other Italians.
The Etruscans had not developed more
modern weapons of war as other Italians
had thus were fairly easy to defeat.
The Beginnings of the
Roman Republic
 The city-state of Rome becomes the
leader on the Italian peninsula;
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A coalition of Italian city-states took
control after the fall of the Etruscans.
Rome evolved as the leader of these citystates.
Rome was built on “seven hills” and
surrounded by swamps which were
unhealthy and unsanitary.
A seaport, Ostia, was built for the city.
Roman Republic Con’t:
 The origin of the Roman Republic;
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The Roman Republic was developed in
reaction to the Italian’s dislike for kings.
(remember the Etruscans)
A republic is defined as --A state in which
the sovereign power is vested in
representatives chosen by the public.
The early republic contained two major
social classes
• A. Patricians
• B. Plebeians
(see next slide)
Social Classes (early Rome)
 Patricians; were members of the
powerful, aristocratic landowning
class.
 Plebeians; were members of a less
powerful, middle class.
 Most of the population was not
politically or economically powerful.
Roman Republic Con’t:
 Three bodies of citizens formed that
helped Rome evolve into a full,
democratic government over a period
of two centuries;
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A. Senate
B. Assembly of Centuries ( Comitia
Centuriata)
Assembly of Tribes (Comitia Tributa)
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(see next slide)
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Government Bodies of
Rome
 Senate: Comprised of 300 Patricians,
elected for life, controlled foreign
affairs, made laws, and selected most
government officials.
 Assembly of Centuries: A group of
100 Patricians who represented and
financed the military.
 Assembly of Tribes: a group with no
power representing 35 plebeian tribes
based on geographic boundaries.
Roman Republic Con’t:
 The Executive officers were chosen
primarily from the Senate and
Assembly of Centuries;
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Magistrates; the chief executive officials
originally chosen by the Patrician Senate.
Consuls; the executive of the republic,
these two men were chosen from the
ranks of the Magistrates for one year
terms. Their primary power was to act as
co-commanders of the military.
Executive Offices Con’t:
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Praetors; These men assumed all judicial
functions of the republic and were
elected by the Patricians.
Censors; These officials registered all
citizens for voting and taxation
purposes. They eventually drew up the
list for membership eligibility into the
Senate and thus became very powerful.
Dictator; An office, originated by the
Senate, where all power was vested in
one man in an emergency for six months.
Laws of the Republic
 Many of the laws passed extended the
power of the plebeian class. By 100 BC
they included;
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The Twelve Tables (450 BC); They are
often called one of the first written
constitutions, it protected the rights of
the plebeian class.
The formation of the Tribunes (444 BC);
These are laws that were designed to
protect the plebeians against unfair laws
passed by the Senate. (Con’t next slide)
Laws Con’t:
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A tribune would sit outside the Senate
chamber and yell “veto” if they attempted
to pass a law against the interests of the
plebeians.
Licinian-Sexton laws (376 BC); which
limited the size of the estates held by
Senators and reinforced the power of the
Tribunes.
Hortensian laws (287 BC); These laws
allowed for laws to be voted on by the
plebeians. Called a “Plebiscite”
Roman Expansion and the
Punic Wars
 Rome quickly expanded its influence
far beyond the traditional Italian
peninsula;
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By 300 BC Rome controlled all the citystates south of the Rubicon River.
Sicily and Sardinia were conquered in 285
BC.
All of the Italian peninsula was controlled
by Rome by 265 BC.
Roman Expansion Con’t:
 Roman expansion came into conflict
with Carthage;
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Carthage, located on the northern edge of
Africa directly across form Sicily, had
become an important force in the
Mediterranean basin.
Carthage was a former colony of
Phoenicia.
By 285 BC Carthage controlled most of
northern Africa, Spain and southern
France.
Roman Expansion Con’t:
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Carthage began to feel threatened when
Rome challenged its large commercial
trade in the Mediterranean.
Carthage considered the Mediterranean a
“Carthaginian Lake.”
Conflict arose over a Carthaginian colony
located on Sicily.
Neither side attempted to avoid war and
a series of three wars resulted.
The First Punic War
 The First Punic war (264 to 241 BC)
witnessed both sides with distinct
advantages;
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Rome had (A) a strong army, (B)
defensible lands, (C) loyal subjects, (D)
generals who adapted as the war
progressed.
Carthage had (A) control of the seas, (B)
control of all of northern Africa, (C) had a
large population from which to raise an
army, (D) dynamic, innovative generals.
First Punic War Con’t:
 A military stalemate developed early
with neither side having a decisive
edge.
 Rome finally captured a Carthaginian
ship and copied its design.
 Rome built a fleet of warships within
three months and adapted land tactics
to them including (1) landing bridges,
(2) catapults, and (3) grappling hooks.
First Punic War Con’t:
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Rome finally defeated Carthage’s navy
and Carthage sued for peace in 241 BC.
 During the intercession period of 241
to 219 BC, Rome continued to expand
her colonial holdings in the
Mediterranean Sea. Areas controlled
were;
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Corsica
Illyria in present day Albania
Lands north of the Po River and Gaul
The Second Punic War
 With her colonial holdings threatened,
Carthage decided to resume the war
resulting in the 2nd Punic War
(218 to 201 BC)
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A new general, Hannibal, led the
Carthaginian war effort.
Hannibal is remembered as one of the
most innovative and dynamic military
leaders in world history.
He developed a plan to mount a surprise
attack on Rome during the winter.
Second Punic War Con’t:
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He assembled a large army in Spain and
marched across southern France and into
the Italian Alps in the dead of winter.
Although losing over half of his army, he
still entered the Po valley with a large
army of 25,000 troops.
He also had a detachment of armored
elephants which were unique in European
military history.
Hannibal’s attack surprised the Roman
army and he easily defeated them in
several battles.
Second Punic War Con’t:
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Rome, led by the general Fabian, made
the decision to hide behind its walled
cities (now called the Fabian tactic) and
leave the countryside to Hannibal.
Rome finally decided to confront
Hannibal head-on and met him at the
Battle of Cannae in 216 BC. (see map)
This battle was the most lop-sided battle
in military history with Rome losing over
40,000 troops in a single morning.
Second Punic War Con’t:
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Rome again retreated behind its walled
cities and Hannibal continued to have free
reign over the countryside although a
lack of supplies kept him from completely
defeating the Roman army.
Rome finally decided to take the war
directly to Carthage and led by a young
general, Scipio Africanus, they defeated
Hannibal in the Battle of Zama in 201 BC.
Carthage lost all of its colonies and
retained only the city-state itself.
Second Punic War Con’t:
 Following Hannibal’s defeat, the
second intercession started which
lasted from 201 to 146 BC.
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During this time Rome continued to
expand its colonies annexing;
• Macedonia
• Greece
• Spain
• Anatolia
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Roman leaders, led by Senator Cato the
elder, wanted revenge on Carthage.
Second Punic War Con’t:
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Plans were made by a group of Senators
to completely destroy Carthage.
In 149 BC a punitive expedition
destroyed the city of Carthage, with its
walls being torn down, the ground
plowed and salted.
The present-day site of Carthage in Libya
is still revered and considered a sacred
spot by most north Africans.
The Civil War
 The rapid growth of the Roman
colonial holdings created many
internal problems;
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The republic, although democratic, did
not extend citizenship to its colonies.
The organization of the colonies
promoted inefficiency and corruption;
• The colonies were divided into “Provinces”
• Each colony was governed by a “Proconsul”
who was appointed for one year with no
salary.
Civil War Con’t:
• This practice led to corruption.
• Proconsuls turned tax collecting over to
“Publicans” who got to keep all excess taxes
collected.
• This process of “Tax-Farming” placed a huge
financial burden on the colonial peoples.
(NEXT SLIDE)
Civil War Con’t:
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Colonial lands, although state-owned,
were ruled as private estates called
“Latifundias” by aristocratic patricians.
A large commercial trade developed with
the colonies which led to a new middle
class (Equites) which had wealth but no
political power. Political dissent began to
rise when an increase of jobless citizens
occurred as a result of increase in slaves
and decline of the small farmer who could
not compete against the large latifundias.
The Civil War Con’t:
 The Equites were led by two very
charismatic brothers who are
sometimes compared to the
Kennedy’s of the 1960’s
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Tiberus Gracchus (163 to 133 BC) and
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Grius Gracchus (153 to 121 BC)
– (Next Slide)
Civil War Con’t:
 Tiberus Gracchus was a member of
one of the wealthiest and most
powerful families of Rome. He;
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was the grandson of Scipio Africanus and
is sometimes compared to FDR as the
Roman “New Dealer”.
Became an enemy of the Particians when
he proposed land reform with a goal of
complete redistribution of all colonial
lands into equal shares for all citizens
Civil War Con’t:
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Was elected Tribune in 135 BC and
eventually was assassinated by a group of
citizens goaded by the Senators in 133
BC.
 Gaius Gracchus, he
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was the younger brother of Tiberus.
Announced his intention to not only
continue his brother’s land reforms but
also to subsidize food for the poor.
was forced to kill himself when
threatened with assassination.
Civil War Con’t:
 The leaders that followed the Gracchi
brothers and the Senate began to
polarize into the first political parties.
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The “Populares”, a group of Gracchi
supporters, were liberals who believed in
land reform and redistribution of political
power.
The “Optimates”, were made up primarily
of aristocratic followers of the Senate,
were conservative, and believed in
maintaining the status quo.
Civil War Con’t:
 A civil war broke out between these
two when control of the Roman
government was challenged (88 to 78
BC)
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Marius (187 to 86 BC) assumed power
over the Populares. He was a Roman hero
who had defeated an early Germanic
invasion of Cisalpine in Gaul in 105 BC
and who is most remembered as the
founder of the modern Roman army.
Civil War Con’t:
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He revolutionized the army by making it
more mobile and better armed.
He also opened up its ranks to noncitizens, the result of which led to an
army loyal to its leader not the state.
 Sulla (138 to 78 BC) , an optimate,
became a consul of Rome in 88 BC.;
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He was forced to leave Rome in the
same year to put down a rebellion in
Asia Minor (The Mithradatic War)
Civil War Con’t:
 With Sulla absent, Marius and a group
of equites led by Cina, seized control
of the Roman government executing
many optimate leaders and abolishing
the senate in a reign of terror.
 Sulla was forced to return and he soon
regained control in 83 BC.
 Upon his return he executed Cina and
completely crushed the Populare
party, killing thousands.
Civil War Con’t:
 Sulla also restored the Senate and
gave it absolute control over the
Roman government.
 Many historians feel it is at this point
that the Roman Republic ends and the
Roman Empire begins.
 Marius, who fled Rome , died of
natural causes while Sulla, at the
height of his power, retired. He soon
died of natural causes in 79 BC.
The Rise of Julius Caesar
 With Maruis and Sulla removed from
Rome, a power vacuum developed.
 Three influential Romans rise to
challenge for the leadership of the
Roman government;
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Pompey (106 to 48 BC); A patrician
optimate, he was one of the most
influential men in Rome. He had very
deep support from the Roman Senate.
Julius Caesar Con’t:
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Crassus (112 to 53 BC); Also a patrician
optimate, but with less support among
the Senate. He was Sulla’s protégé and a
military hero as a result of the
suppression of the Slave revolt led by
Spartacus in 73 BC. He was considered
the wealthiest man in Rome.
Julius Caesar; A populare and nephew of
Marius, he was also a member of one of
the oldest families in Rome. He was
opposed by the Senate.
Julius Caesar Con’t:
 The three Romans reach a
compromise and rule an the “First
Triumvirate.”
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Pompey and Crassus were the consuls of
Rome.
In a surprise move, they repealed many of
Sulla’s reforms and stripped much of the
power from the Senate.
In an attempt to placate the populares,
Pompey and Crassus decide to make
Julius Caesar a Consul without power.
Julius Caesar Con’t:
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Although officially part of the
government, Caesar did not trust Pompey
or Crassus.
 Caesar decides to leave Rome for a
foreign outpost;
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Caesar appoints himself Proconsul of
Gaul. (See map)
This action was designed to remove
himself from Roman politics and also to
recruit a loyal army much as Marius had
done.
Julius Caesar Con’t:
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Caesar met limited success in Gaul but
eventually brings it under Roman control
by 55 BC.
He sent continuous dispatches back to
Rome, These became known as the
“Commentaries on the Gallic War”.
(Do you suppose they were slanted?)
Caesar attempted to invade and conquer
Britain but he was driven out by the Celts
As a result of his Gaul campaigns he
gained a popular following.
Julius Caesar Con’t:
 Caesar returns to Rome and achieves
total control of the government;
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Crassus meets an unexpected death
during a military campaign in Syria in 53
BC.
Pompey declares himself sole consul and
orders Caesar to disband his army and
return to Rome.
Caesar begins a march on Rome with his
army intact.
Julius Caesar Con’t:
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Caesar is warned not to cross the Rubicon
but he disobeys, stating “The die is cast.”
The common people of Rome are obvious
in their support of Julius Caesar and even
many optimates desert Pompey when it
becomes obvious he cannot defeat
Caesar.
He is eventually chased to Egypt, where
Caesar follows him, has him executed,
and assists Cleopatra in her effort to gain
the throne of Egypt.
Julius Caesar Con’t:
 Julius Caesar establishes a dictatorship
(49 to 44 BC)
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Caesar becomes a “Demagogue”, or one
who makes use or popular prejudices and
false claims and promises in order to gain
power.
In a series of political moves, Caesar
gained total control of the Roman
government.
He made and took several titles;
Caesar’s Changes
• A. Appointed dictator for 10 years.
• B. Appointed dictator for life.
• C. Assumed the title of “Imperator” which
means in a perpetual state of triumph.
• D. Assumed the title of “Pater Patriae” or
“Father of his Country.” (notice he didn’t
take the title KING, a hated title since the
days of the Tarquins)
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Caesar implemented a series of reforms
designed to further consolidate his
power. They include;
Julius Caesar Con’t:
 Caesar’s reforms created deep hatred
from the wealthy and powerful Senate
which would eventually lead to his
downfall;
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The large masses grew in their support
of Caesar.
At the same time the Senate feared his
reforms and attempted to convince the
people that he was going to restore the
kingship.
Changes Con’t:
 He granted citizenship to many
colonials, thus widening his base of
support.
 He granted pay to Proconsuls to
remove corruption and gain allegiance
from them.
 He established a network of spies.
 He instituted a policy of land reform.
 He reduced the power of the Senate.
Julius Caesar Con’t:
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The Senate despised him because of his
actions which included;
• A. Having his head placed on the coin of the
realm.
• B. Having himself proclaimed a descendent of
Romulus and Remus.
• C. Assuming the oriental dress of the
Egyptians.
• D. Establishing a religious cult which many
thought would lead to his self-proclaimed
divinity.
Julius Caesar Con’t:
 A group of Senators, led by Cassius
and Brutus, plotted to assassinate
Caesar.
 Despite many warnings, Caesar
entered the Senate chamber on March
15th, 44 BC and was stabbed over 60
times.
 Hence the saying; “Beware the Ides of
March”