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Chapter 1
An Introduction to
Anatomy and
Physiology
Lecture Presentation by
Lee Ann Frederick
University of Texas at Arlington
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to Studying the Human
Body
• Learning Outcomes
• 1-1 Explain the importance of studying anatomy
and physiology.
• 1-2 Define anatomy and physiology, describe
the origins of anatomical and physiological
terms, and explain the significance of
Terminologia Anatomica (International
Anatomical Terminology).
• 1-3 Explain the relationship between anatomy
and physiology, and describe various
specialties of each discipline.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to Studying the Human
Body
• Learning Outcomes
• 1-4 Identify the major levels of organization in
organisms, from the simplest to the most
complex, and identify major components of
each organ system.
• 1-5 Explain the concept of homeostasis.
• 1-6 Describe how negative feedback and
positive feedback are involved in homeostatic
regulation, and explain the significance of
homeostasis.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to Studying the Human
Body
• Learning Outcomes
• 1-7 Use anatomical terms to describe body
regions, body sections, and relative positions.
• 1-8 Identify the major body cavities and their
subdivisions, and describe the functions
of each.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to Studying the Human
Body
• Classification of Living Things
• Humans and many other animals are vertebrates
• Characterized by a segmented vertebral column
• Common characteristics suggest the same path in
evolution
• Homeostasis
• The goal of physiological regulation and the key to
survival in a changing environment
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1-1 Anatomy and Physiology Directly Affect
Your Life
• Anatomy
• Is the study of body structures
• Oldest medical science: 1600 BCE
• Physiology
• Is the study of function
•
•
•
•
Biochemistry
Biology
Chemistry
Genetics
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1-2 Anatomy and Physiology
• Anatomy
• Describes the
of the body
• What they are made of
• Where they are located
• Associated structures
• Physiology
• Is the study of:
•
•
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of anatomical structures
and
functions
1-3 Relationships between Anatomy and
Physiology
• Anatomy
•
, or macroscopic anatomy,
examines large, visible structures
•
•
•
•
•
Surface anatomy: exterior features
Regional anatomy: body areas
Systemic anatomy:
Clinical anatomy: medical specialties
Developmental anatomy: from conception to death
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1-3 Relationships between Anatomy and
Physiology
• Anatomy
•
examines cells and
molecules
• Cytology: study of
and their structures
• cyt- = cell
• Histology: study of
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and their structures
1-3 Relationships between Anatomy and
Physiology
• Physiology
•
physiology: processes within and between
cells
•
•
•
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physiology: functions of specific organs
physiology: functions of an organ system
physiology: effects of diseases
1-4 Levels of Organization
• The
(or Molecular) Level
• Atoms are the smallest chemical units
• Molecules are a group of atoms working together
• The
Level
• Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and
organelles working together
• The
Level
• A tissue is a group of similar cells working together
• The
Level
• An organ is a group of different tissues working
together
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1-4 Levels of Organization
• The Organ System Level
• An
is a group of organs working
together
• Humans have 11 organ systems
• The Organism Level
• A human is an
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Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 1 of 4).
Cellular Level
Chemical Level
Protein filaments
Atoms in combination
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Complex protein molecule
Heart muscle
cell
Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 2 of 4).
Tissue Level
Cardiac muscle
tissue
Organ Level
The heart
The
cardiovascular
system
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Organ system
level
Organism
level
Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 3 of 4).
THE ORGAN SYSTEMS
Integumentary
Major Organs
• Skin
• Hair
• Sweat glands
• Nails
Functions
• Protects against
environmental
hazards
• Helps regulate
body temperature
• Provides sensory
information
Skeletal
Major Organs
• Bones
• Cartilages
• Associated
ligaments
• Bone marrow
Functions
• Provides support
and protection for
other tissues
• Stores calcium and
other minerals
• Forms blood cells
Muscular
Major Organs
• Skeletal muscles
and associated
tendons
Functions
• Provides
movement
• Provides protection
and support for
other tissues
• Generates heat that
maintains body
temperature
Nervous
Major Organs
• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Peripheral nerves
• Sense organs
Functions
• Directs immediate
responses to
stimuli
• Coordinates or
moderates
activities of other
organ systems
• Provides and
interprets sensory
information about
external conditions
Endocrine
Major Organs
• Pituitary gland
• Thyroid gland
• Pancreas
• Adrenal glands
• Gonads
• Endocrine tissues in
other systems
Functions
• Directs long-term
changes in the
activities of other
organ systems
• Adjusts metabolic
activity and energy
use by the body
• Controls many
structural and
functional changes
during development
Cardiovascular
Major Organs
• Heart
• Blood
• Blood vessels
Functions
• Distributes blood
cells, water and
dissolved
materials
including
nutrients, waste
products,
oxygen, and
carbon dioxide
• Distributes heat
and assists in
control of body
temperature
Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 4 of 4) .
Lymphatic
Major Organs
• Spleen
• Thymus
• Lymphatic
vessels
• Lymph nodes
• Tonsils
Functions
• Defends against
infection and
disease
• Returns tissue
fluids to the
bloodstream
Respiratory
Major Organs
• Nasal cavities
• Sinuses
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Lungs
• Alveoli
Functions
• Delivers air to
alveoli (sites in
lungs where gas
exchange occurs)
• Provides oxygen to
bloodstream
• Removes carbon
dioxide from
bloodstream
• Produces sounds
for communication
Digestive
Major Organs
• Teeth
• Tongue
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Liver
• Gallbladder
• Pancreas
Functions
• Processes and
digests food
• Absorbs and
conserves water
• Absorbs nutrients
• Stores energy
reserves
Urinary
Major Organs
• Kidneys
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
Functions
• Excretes waste
products from the
blood
• Controls water
balance by
regulating volume
of urine produced
• Stores urine prior
to voluntary
elimination
• Regulates blood
ion concentrations
and pH
Male Reproductive Female Reproductive
Major Organs
• Testes
• Epididymides
• Ductus deferentia
• Seminal vesicles
• Prostate gland
• Penis
• Scrotum
Major Organs
• Ovaries
• Uterine tubes
• Uterus
• Vagina
• Labia
• Clitoris
• Mammary glands
Functions
• Produces male sex
cells (sperm),
seminal fluids, and
hormones
• Sexual intercourse
Functions
• Produces female
sex cells (oocytes)
and hormones
• Supports developing embryo from
conception to
delivery
• Provides milk to
nourish newborn
infant
• Sexual intercourse
1-5 Homeostasis
• Homeostasis
• All body systems working together to maintain a
• Systems respond to external and internal changes
to function within a normal range (body
temperature, fluid balance)
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1-5 Homeostasis
• Mechanisms of Regulation
• Autoregulation (
)
• Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to
some environmental change
•
regulation
• Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine
systems
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1-5 Homeostasis
• Receptor
•
• Control Center
•
• Effector
•
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Figure 1-2 The Control of Room Temperature.
RECEPTOR
Normal
condition
disturbed
Thermometer
Information
affects
STIMULUS:
Room temperature
rises
CONTROL CENTER
(Thermostat)
HOMEOSTASIS
Air
conditioner
turns on
RESPONSE:
Room temperature
drops
Normal
condition
restored
EFFECTOR
Air conditioner
turns on
20
30 40
Sends
commands
to
a In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a thermostat (the
control center) triggers an effector response (either an air conditioner or a
heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case, when room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostat turns on the air conditioner,
and the temperature returns to normal.
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Room temperature (C)
Normal room
temperature
Air
conditioner
turns off
Normal
range
22 Set point
Time
b With this regulatory system,
room temperature fluctuates
around the set point, 22C.
1-6 Negative and Positive Feedback
• The Role of4
• The response of the effector negates the stimulus
• Body is brought back into homeostasis
• Normal range is achieved
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Figure 1-3 Negative Feedback: Control of Body Temperature.
RECEPTORS
Temperature
sensors in skin
and
hypothalamus
Normal
temperature
disturbed
Information
affects
CONTROL
CENTER
STIMULUS:
Body temperature
rises
HOMEOSTASIS
RESPONSE:
Increased heat loss,
body temperature
drops
Normal
temperature
restored
EFFECTORS
• Sweat glands
in skin increase
secretion
• Blood vessels
in skin dilate
Sends
commands
to
a Events in the regulation of body temperature, which are comparable to
those shown in Figure 1–2. A control center in the brain (the hypothalamus)
functions as a thermostat with a set point of 37C. If body temperature
exceeds 37.2C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flow to the
skin and increased sweating.
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Body temperature (C)
Thermoregulatory
center in brain
Normal body
temperature
Vessels
dilate,
sweating
increases
37.2
Set point
37
36.7
Vessels
constrict,
sweating
decreases
Normal
range
Time
b The thermoregulatory center
keeps body temperature fluctuating within an acceptable range,
usually between 36.7C and
37.2C.
1-6 Negative and Positive Feedback
• The Role of Positive Feedback
• The response of the effector
change of
the stimulus
• Body is moved away from homeostasis
• Normal range is lost
• Used to speed up processes
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Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting.
Clotting
accelerates
Positive
feedback
loop
Chemicals
Damaged cells in the blood
vessel wall release chemicals that begin the clotting
process.
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The chemicals start chain
reactions in which cells,
cell fragments, and soluble
proteins in the blood begin
to form a clot.
Chemicals
Blood clot
As clotting continues, each
step releases chemicals
that further accelerate the
process.
This escalating process
is a positive feedback
loop that ends with the
formation of a blood clot,
which patches the vessel
wall and stops the bleeding.
1-6 Negative and Positive Feedback
• Systems Integration
• Systems work together to maintain homeostasis
• Homeostasis is a
• Opposing forces are in balance
• Dynamic equilibrium —
• Physiological systems work to restore balance
• Failure results in disease or death
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Table 1-1 The Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation.
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1-7 Anatomical Terminology
•
Anatomy
• Locating structures on or near the body surface
• Anatomical Landmarks
• Anatomical position:
• Supine: lying down, face up
• Prone: lying down, face down
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1-7 Anatomical Terminology
• Superficial Anatomy
• Anatomical landmarks
• References to palpable structures
• Anatomical regions
• Abdominopelvic quadrants
• Abdominopelvic regions
• Anatomical directions
• Reference terms based on subject
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Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2).
Frontal or
forehead
Nasal or nose
Ocular, orbital
or eye
Cranial
or skull
Cephalic or head
Facial
or face
Oral or mouth
Mental or chin
Buccal or cheek
Cervical or neck
Thoracic or
thorax, chest
Axillary or armpit
Mammary
or breast
Brachial
or arm
Abdominal
(abdomen)
Umbilical
or navel
Antecubital
or front of
elbow
a Anterior view
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Otic or ear
Trunk
Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 2 of 2).
Antebrachial
or forearm
Pelvic
(pelvis)
Trunk
Carpal or wrist
Palmar or palm
Manual
or hand
Digits
Pollex
or thumb (phalanges)
or fingers (digital
or phalangeal)
Inguinal
or groin
Pubic
(pubis)
Patellar
or kneecap
Femoral
or thigh
Crural
or leg
Tarsal or
ankle
Digits (phalanges)
or toes (digital or
phalangeal)
Hallux or
great toe
Pedal
or foot
a Anterior view
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Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2).
Cephalic
or head
Acromial or
shoulder
Dorsal or
back
Cervical
or neck
Olecranal
or back
of elbow
Upper
limb
b Posterior view
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Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks (Part 2 of 2).
Lumbar
or loin
Upper
limb
Gluteal
or buttock
Lower
limb
Popliteal or
back of knee
Sural
or calf
Calcaneal or
heal of foot
Plantar or
sole of foot
b Posterior view
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Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Right Upper
Quadrant
(RUQ)
Left Upper
Quadrant
(LUQ)
Right Lower
Quadrant
(RLQ)
Left Lower
Quadrant
(LLQ)
a Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four
abdominopelvic quadrants are formed by two
perpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. The
terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations, are
most often used in clinical discussions.
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Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Right
hypochondriac
region
Right lumbar
region
Right
inguinal
region
Epigastric
region
Left
hypochondriac
region
Umbilical
region
Left lumbar
region
Hypogastric
(pubic)
region
Left inguinal
region
b Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic
regions provide more precise regional descriptions.
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Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Liver
Gallbladder
Stomach
Spleen
Large intestine
Small intestine
Appendix
Urinary
bladder
c Anatomical relationships. The relationship between
the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and the
locations of the internal organs are shown here.
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Figure 1-7 Directional References.
Superior: Above; at a higher level (in the human body, toward the head)
Right
Superior
The head is superior to the knee.
Cranial or Cephalic
Toward the head
Left
The cranial, or cephalic, border of
the pelvis is superior to the thigh.
Proximal
Toward an
attached base
The shoulder is
proximal to the
wrist.
Lateral
Medial
Away
from the
midline
Toward
the
midline
Posterior or Dorsal
Anterior or Ventral
Posterior: The back
surface
Anterior: The front
surface
Ventral: The belly
side. (equivalent to
anterior when
referring to the human
body)
The umbilicus (navel)
is on the
anterior (or ventral)
surface of the trunk.
Dorsal: The back.
(equivalent to posterior
when referring to the
human body)
The scapula (shoulder
blade) is located
posterior
to the rib cage.
Proximal
Caudal
Distal
Toward the tail;
(coccyx in
humans)
The hips are
caudal to the
waist.
Away from an
attached base
The fingers are
distal to the
wrist.
OTHER DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Superficial
Distal
At, near, or relatively close
to the body surface
The skin is superficial to
underlying structures.
Deep
Toward the interior of the
body; farther from the surface
a Anterior view
Inferior: Below; at a lower level; toward the feet
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The bone of the thigh is deep
to the surrounding skeletal
muscles.
The knee is inferior to the hip.
b Lateral view
Inferior
1-7 Anatomical Terminology
• Sectional Anatomy
• Planes and sections
• Plane: a three-dimensional axis
• Section: a slice parallel to a plane
• Used to visualize internal organization and
structure
• Important in radiological techniques
• MRI
• PET
• CT
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Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes.
Sagittal plane
Frontal or coronal
plane
Plane is oriented parallel to
long axis
Plane is oriented
parallel to long axis
A sagittal section separates
right and left portions. You
examine a sagittal section,
but you section sagittally.
A frontal, or coronal,
section separates
anterior and
posterior portions of
the body. Coronal
usually refers to
sections passing
through the skull.
In a midsagittal section, the
plane passes through the
midline. It separates the
body into equal right and
left sides.
Directional term:
frontally or coronally
Midsagittal plane
A parasagittal section
misses the midline. It
separates the body into
unequal right and left sides.
Directional term: sagittally
Transverse, or
horizontal, plane
Plane is oriented
perpendicular to long axis
Frontal plane
Transverse plane
(inferior view)
A transverse, or cross,
section separates
superior and inferior
portions of the body.
Directional term:
transversely or horizontally
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1-8 Body Cavities
• Essential Functions of
1. Protect organs from accidental shocks
2. Permit changes in size and shape of internal
organs
• Ventral Body Cavity (Coelom)
• Divided by the diaphragm
• Thoracic cavity
• Abdominopelvic cavity
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1-8 Body Cavities
•
Membranes
• Line body cavities and cover organs
• Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer
• Parietal layer — lines cavity
• Visceral layer — covers organ
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1-8 Body Cavities
• The Thoracic Cavity
• Right and left
• Contain right and left lungs
• Mediastinum
• Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea,
esophagus, and thymus
• Lower portion contains pericardial cavity
• The heart is located within the pericardial cavity
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Figure 1-9a Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk.
POSTERIOR
ANTERIOR
Thoracic cavity
Pleural cavity
Pericardial cavity
Diaphragm
Abdominopelvic
cavity
Peritoneal cavity
Abdominal cavity
Pelvic cavity
a
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A lateral view showing the body cavities
of the trunk. The muscular diaphragm
subdivides them into a superior thoracic
cavity and an inferior abdominopelvic
cavity. Three of the four adult true body
cavities are shown and outlined in red;
only one of the two pleural cavities can
be shown in a sagittal section.
Figure 1-9b Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk.
Visceral
pericardium
Heart
Pericardial
cavity
Air space
Balloon
Parietal
pericardium
b The heart projects into the pericardial cavity like a fist pushed
into a balloon. The attachment site, corresponding to the wrist
of the hand, lies at the connection between the heart and
major blood vessels. The width of the pericardial cavity is
exaggerated here; normally the visceral and parietal layers
are separated only by a thin layer of pericardial fluid.
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Figure 1-9c Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk.
ANTERIOR
Pericardial
cavity
Pleural cavity
Parietal pleura
Heart
Right
lung
Left
lung
Mediastinum
Spinal cord
POSTERIOR
c A transverse section through the thoracic cavity, showing the central
location of the pericardial cavity. The mediastinum and pericardial cavity
lie between the two pleural cavities. Note that this transverse or crosssectional view is oriented as though the observer were standing at the
subject’s feet and looking toward the subject’s head. This inferior view of
a transverse section is the standard presentation for clinical images.
Unless otherwise noted, transverse or cross-sectional views in this text
use this same orientation (see Spotlight Figure 1-10).
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1-8 Body Cavities
• The
• Peritoneal cavity: chamber within abdominopelvic
cavity
• Parietal peritoneum: lines the internal body wall
• Visceral peritoneum: covers the organs
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1-8 Body Cavities
• The Abdominopelvic Cavity
• Abdominal cavity — superior portion
• Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones
• Contains digestive organs
• Retroperitoneal space
• Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to
muscular body wall
• Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of
the digestive tract
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1-8 Body Cavities
• The Abdominopelvic Cavity
•
— inferior portion
• Within pelvic bones
• Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder
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