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Child Psychology~ Psy 235 Social Development Social Development Refers the maturation of skill or abilities that enable people to live in a world with other people Attachment A strong emotional connection that persists over time and across circumstances. Infant attachment leads to feeling of safety and security. Social Development John Bowlby, social development researcher, suggests that attachment serves to motivate infants and caregivers to stay in contact He argues that infants have an innate repertoire of attachment behaviors that encourage adult attention. Social Development These behaviors include: 1. Extending their hands to be lifted 2. Smiling at caregiver 3. Crying or whining when they are in distress Attachment Styles Attachment between a child and his/her caregiver matures over the initial several months of life. The attachment is so strong that when the child become mobile and is separated from the caregiver, s/he experiences separation anxiety Attachment Styles Mary Ainsworth conducted a series of test to determine how infants would respond to the departure of their caregiver while a stranger was present. 1 Secure Attachment A secure child is happy to play alone and is friendly to a stranger as long as his caregiver is present (65% of childern) Attachment Styles 2. Avoidance Attachment These children do not appear distressed by the departure of the caregiver and if upset they can be comforted by a stranger When the caregiver returns, the infant does not seek to be reunited and will ignore the caregiver (20-25 % of children) Attachment Styles 3. Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment These children are anxious and cling to the caregiver after the first entering into a room When the caregiver leaves the room the infant becomes inconsolably When the caregiver returns, the child will both reject and elicit caring contact (10-15 %) Attachment and Chemistry Scientist have discovered that the hormone oxytocin is related to social behaviors. It plays a role in maternal tendencies, feelings of social acceptance and bonding, and sexual gratification. Oxytocin promotes maternal behaviors that seek to ensure the survival of the young. (e.g.-while the infant sucks the mother’s breast, oxytocin is released and leads to a biological process that pumps milk from the breast so the infant can nurse. Attachment and Chemistry Oxytocin facilitates ___infant_____ _______attachment____ to the mother and strengthens social memories. Formation of Friendships Researchers have discovered that _____friendships______develop before the age of __2___and are limited to parallel play which involves sitting side by side and independent play. By age _3__, interactive friendships are formed that are characterized by physical proximity and shared activities. Formation of Friendships By late pre-school age, children begin to engage in sharing and reciprocity and show commitment to their friends. John Gottman studied the process where by children become friends and has identified five factors that are essential to the formation of friendship. They include Formation of Friendships 1. Common Ground Activity Children who became friends were those who quickly found something they could do together They explore their similarities and differences. Formation of Friendships 2. Clear Communication Children who became friends were less likely to engage in collective monologues, a type of speech that occurs when children are playing near each other and speaking, but not directing their speech at any individual. Children who became friends listened to each other, requested clarification when they did not understand, and spoke in ways that were relevant to the task at hand. Formation of Friendships 3. Exchange of Information Children who became friends both asked for and provided information relevant to their partners 4. Resolution of Conflict Children who became friends gave good reasons when they disagreed and were able to bring conflicts to a quick resolution Formation of Friendships 5. Reciprocity Children who became friends were likely to respond to their partners positive behaviors with appropriate positive contributions of their own Adolescents & Social Development Adolescents reject parental involvement and begin spending more time with friends. They engage in risk taking such as drinking, drug use, sex, alcohol… at a higher rate than other age groups. Researchers suggest that a modest amount of riskiness in teens is developmentally appropriate experimentation. Adolescents & Social Development Teens who engage in moderate amounts of risk taking behaviors have better social skills than those teens who engage in little or excessive risk taking behaviors. Moral Development __________ is an integral part of social development because it involves choices people make that affect the lives of others. Moral Reasoning vs. Moral Emotions Moral _______ is dependent upon cognitive processes whereas moral _________ are associated with feeling that involves three levels of moral judgment. Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Pre-conventional Stage 1: Punishment Orientation Actions are evaluated 1. Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Stage 2: Pleasure Seeking Orientation Proper action is determined Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development 2. Conventional Stage 3: Good boy/good girl orientation Good behavior is The emphasis is on being nice. (e.g.-He shouldn’t steal the drug because others will think he is a thief. His wife would not want to be saved by thievery (avoiding disapproval). Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Stage 4: Authority Orientation The emphasis is ____________law, order, and authority. Doing one’s duty and following social rules is important. (e.g.-Although his wife needs the drug, he should not break the law to get it. Everyone is equal in the eyes of the law, and his wife’s condition does not justify stealing. (traditional morality of authority.) Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Post Conventional Stage 5: Support of Laws and Rules Is based on 3. Rules are recognized as open to question, but Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development should not steal the drug. Mutual respect for the rights of others must be maintained (social contact). Stage 6: Morality of Individual Principles Behavior is directed by self-chosen ethical principles that end to be general, comprehensive, or universal. High value is placed on ______, ________ and ________. (e.g.-”He Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development (e.g.-He should steal the drug and then inform the authorities that he has done so. He must face a penalty, but he will have saved a human life (self-chosen ethical principles. Moral Behavior and Psychosocial Development Emotional components of moral behavior include: Empathy is an _________ state that rises from understanding a person’s emotional state in a manner similar to what s/he is feeling or would be expected to feel in a given situation (feel with a person). Moral Behavior and Psychosocial Development __________ arises from feelings of ________, ________, or ________ for another (feel for a person). ________ is an emotional state that involves negative feelings about a specific event or action. _________involves negative feelings about the entire self and one’s identity. Eric Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development 1. Stage One-First Year of Life: Trust vs. Mistrust Children are Basic attitude of trust or mistrust is formed during this period. Trust is established Eric Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development Mistrust is caused by _________ or ____________ care and by parents who are cold, indifferent, or rejecting. Basic mistrust may later cause ________, ____________ or inability to relate to others. Stage 2 Ages 1-3 Years: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Eric Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development Children express their growing self-control by _________, ________, __________ and trying to do things for themselves. Parents foster a sense of ________ by encouraging children to try new skills. The child’s first attempt at _________ are met with failure and will result in spilling, falling, wetting and other accidents. It is important that parents do not ridicule or overprotect during these times. Eric Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development Stage 3-Ages ____-____: Initiative and Guilt Children move Through play they learn to make plans and carry out tasks. Parent reinforce initiative by giving children freedom to play, ask questions, use imagination, and choose activities. Eric Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development Feelings of guilt about initiating activities are formed if parents criticize severely, prevent play or discourage a child’s questions. 4. Stage 4-(___ ___) ______ vs. _________ Erickson describes the elementary school years as the child's" ____________”. In school children learn skills valued by society. Success and failure begins to shape their sense of adequacy. Eric Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development If a child’s efforts are regarded as messy, childish or inadequate—feelings of __________ will result. For the first time teachers, assistants, peers and other adults outside the home are important in shaping the attitudes toward oneself. Eric Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development Stage 5 (______________) Identity vs. Role Confusion Teenage years are often ________. Teens are caught between childhood and adulthood and are faced with unique challenges. They are trying to establish a _________ _________. Teens frequently ask the question, who am I? _________________? Eric Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development Physical and emotional changes, more sophisticated cognitive abilities, and heightened pressure from peers motivate these questions. Eric Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development Teens develop mentally, physically and sexually during this phase. They start to build their own _________ based upon interaction with parents, teachers, peers, etc. and out of their talents, values, life history, relationships and their culture. Persons who fail to develop a sense of identity suffer from ________ _________. Eric Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development 6. Stage 6-_______ ___________: Intimacy vs. Isolation In this stage people need intimacy in their lives. After a stable identity is developed, we are prepared to share meaningful love or deep friendships with others. Role confusion involves uncertainty about who they are and where they are going. Eric Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development 75% of college age men and women rank a good marriage and family life as an important adult goals. Failure to establish intimacy with others leads to a deep sense of isolation. 7. Stage 7-_______ ________(Generativity vs. Stagnation) Individuals develop a desire to care for not only themselves, but are also interested in caring for their children and future generations. Eric Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development A person’s concerns and energies are turned outward, to include the welfare of others and society as a whole. Failure to do this is marked by stagnant concern with one’s own needs and comforts. 8. Stage 8-Late Adulthood; Integrity vs. Despair Eric Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development Old age is a time of __________. The person who has lived a rich, responsible life, develops a sense of _________ or __________ ________. This allows a person to face aging and death with dignity. If previous life events are viewed with regret, the elderly person experiences despair over missed opportunities. Identity Formation James Marcia believed that identity formation involves _______ and _________. The process of dealing with an identity crisis can lead to four possible outcomes. 1. Identity Achievement A status in The person that has reached this stage has usually investigated many philosophies and has chosen clear identity. Identity Formation 2. Identity Foreclosure Is a status in which a person is committed to a set of _______, _______, and ______ because they are the values they were taught when growing up. People in the stage may act ________ or _________ when questioned by others about their belief system. Identity Foreclosure 3. Identity Moratorium Is a status in which a person explores and experiments with various philosophies and vocations. They may seem confused and anxious. However, people in this stage usually reach identity achievement. Identity Formation 4.Identity Diffusion Is characterized by _______ and __________. A person in this stage does not challenge his/her sense of _________ and fails to commit to an ideology. People in this stage avoid confrontation and have avoided resolution of a former crises. Ethnic Identity 1. Refers to psychological association between people and their ethnic or racial group. Jean Phinney developed three stages of ethnic identity: Unexamined Stage The person Ethnic Identity 2. Exploration Stage One’s ethnicity Achievement Stage Represents an understanding of one’s ethnicity acknowledging differences between one’s culture and the dominant culture. Ethnic Identity A A person recognizes person does not have to wear ethnic dress or speak a certain dialect or language to be ethnically achieved. Social Cognition The mental processes by which people make sense of themselves, others, and their social situation. Within a fraction of a second we make snap judgments about people based upon limited information. The Nature of Self The Nature of Self The self involves the mental representation of personal experience and includes thought processes, a physical body, and a conscious experience that one is separate and unique from others. Self Awareness The Nature of Self Developmental psychologist have found that the initial sense of self starts between ___months to ___ years of age. Self concept is the full store of knowledge that people have about themselves. Self-schema is the cognitive aspect of the self-concept, consisting of an integrated set of memories, beliefs, and generalizations about self. The Nature of Self The self-schema consists Self-esteem is the evaluative aspect of the selfconcept. It is based on Accordingly, people internalize the values and beliefs expressed by important people in their lives. The Nature of Self The social view of self-esteem led psychologist to promote unconditional acceptance of children by their parents. __________ Theory assumes that humans have a fundamental need to belong to a social group and that an internal monitor of social acceptance/ rejection is embodied within self-esteem. The Nature of Self Persons with low self-esteem have a sociometer that indicate the imminent possibility of rejection, and therefore, are highly motivated to manage their public impressions. Persons with ______ self-esteem have sociometers that indicate low probability of rejection, and therefore, these individuals do not worry about how they are perceived by others. Strategies to Manage Self-Esteem 1. Self-evaluative Maintenance According to this theory, self-esteem is influenced not only by a person’s perception of their performance or value, but it is also impacted by how their performance compares to someone close to them. People tend to be _________ when someone close to them outperforms them on a task that is personally relevant. Strategies to Manage Self-Esteem 2. Biased Comparison Social comparison occurs when people evaluate their own actions, abilities, and beliefs by contrasting them with others. People with _____ self-esteem make downward comparisons. People with ____ self-esteem make comparisons with those that they perceive to be their superior. Strategies to Manage Self-Esteem 3. Self-serving Biases People with high self-esteem tend to take credit for success and blame failure on outside factors. People with high self-esteem also assume that criticism is motivated by envy and prejudice. Attitudes & Behavior Attitude is the evaluation of objects or ideas to indicate like or dislike toward them. Attitudes are not observable but have a significant impact on behavior. Attitudes consist of three components: 1. Affect-Emotion & Feelings 2. Cognition-Thoughts and Mental Processes 3. Behavior-Actions Attitudes & Behavior Attitudes, in most cases, will guide behavior. However, there are times when people will mask their behavior despite a negative attitude towards a person, a group or a situation. Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and behavior. (e.g.-People smoke despite knowing that smoking may kill them .) Attitudes & Behavior Postdecisional dissonance occurs when a person makes the best choice out of 2 or more good choices, they still seek to justify the decision by accentuating all the positive aspects of their decision. They also tend to highlight the negative aspects of the other choices. Formation of Attitudes Integration formation is the initial perceptions that a person has toward a person or situation. Initial impressions have a significant impact on future perceptions regardless of changes in behavior or circumstance. Personal attributions refer to the internal characteristics, such as abilities, traits, moods, and efforts of an individual. Formation of Attitudes Situational Attributions refer to the external events, such as weather, luck, accidents or the actions of other people. Stereotypes are cognitive schemas that allow for easy and efficient organization of information about people based on their membership in certain groups. Prejudice refers to the affective or attitudinal responses associated with stereotypes which usually involve negative judgments about people based on their group membership. Formation of Attitudes Discrimination is the unjustified and inappropriate treatment of people based on their group membership. Researchers suggest that categorizing and stereotyping occurs automatically, without awareness or intent. However, people are able to override their stereotypes and act in a nondiscriminatory fashion.