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Transcript
Evolution Darwin, Variation, and History of Life Why Do We Study Evolution? Evolution is a major part of modern science. The debate is NOT whether evolution happens or not…it does! Rather, the debate is with the Origin of all Species on Earth ( a totally different thing). Creationism, Intelligent Design, Natural Selection? When was the Earth created? Did all living things evolve from one (1) ancestor? Evolution Evolution: Change Over Time Charles Darwin made a voyage on the HMS Beagle in 1831 as the ship’s naturalist. On this voyage, he collected many unique specimens that he had never seen and were not documented. Darwin noted the diversity of organisms, how well-suited each organism was to its environment, and new fossils (remains of living things) that were either similar to existing organisms or very unique. Darwin’s Influences Hutton (1785) – proposed that Earth is millions of years old due to slow geological processes Lyell (1833) – released Principles of Geology, which explained that factors shaping the ancient Earth are the same that are presently acting on it (volcanoes, erosion, etc.) Darwin’s Conclusion: If Earth could undergo such changes, life could do the same over long periods of time Darwin’s Influences (1744-1829) – one of the 1st scientists to recognize organisms change over time Lamarck Thought that organisms “chose” to become more complex (Bird learned to fly from an “urge”) Believed that organisms could change based on use or disuse of certain parts. Believed that acquired traits could be inherited (strength, speed, etc.) For example, Mrs. Fernandez and Mrs. Wade worked out for several weeks and acquired the coveted sixpack abs. Years later when Mrs. Wade had her fifth child, he was born with the desirable abs. Tendency towards perfection- continually changing to be successful. Darwin’s Influences (1798) – reasoned that the human population was growing faster than the Earth’s resources could supply Malthus Darwin’s Conclusion: This must also apply to other organisms since humans produce far fewer offspring than other animals Some forces must keep population sizes in check. Darwin’s Theory 1) 2) 3) Darwin Published On the Origin of Species in 1859 after sharing similar ideas with a man named Wallace. His Theory included 8 major points: Individual organisms have variation due to inheritance ( differences in a population). Organisms can only pass down the traits that they are born with. Organisms compete for limited resources. Darwin’s 8 major points cont: 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) Because of #1, each organism has different advantages and disadvantages in their struggle for existence. “Best suited” individuals survive and reproduce, passing on their genetic info and leaving more offspring. Species change over time Species alive today have evolved from previous species. All organisms are tied together by common descent. Lamarck vs. Darwin http://www.angelfire.com/bug/darwinvsla marck/ Occurs in all populations Sexual reproduction increases the chance of natural variation because of the gene shuffling of meiosis Occurs far less frequently in asexual reproduction The selective breeding of domesticated plants and animals by man. Question: What’s the ancestor of the domesticated dog? Answer: WOLF Natural Selection Selection – traits among a species are selected over time to benefit the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce Natural Example of Natural Selection: Evolution of the European Peppered Moth due to the Industrial Revolution Natural Selection Organisms are in a struggle for existence, meaning they are in competition for food, living space, mates, etc. “Survival of the Fittest” - Those organisms who are most “fit” will survive longer, reproduce more, and pass their genes on to offspring Fitness refers to the ability of an organism to survive/reproduce. An Adaptation is any change that increases the organisms chance of survival A trait/characteristic that an organism is born with All organisms have adaptations that help them survive and thrive Structural adaptations are physical features of an organism Behavioral adaptations are the things organisms do to survive. Physiological adaptations are chemical responses to stimuli to maintain homeostasis Descent With Modification Darwin proposed that natural selection acts to make organisms more diverse, occupy different niches and habitats, and look different than their ancestors. This is called Descent with Modification. The idea of Common Descent hypothesizes that all species were derived from common ancestors. Evidence for Evolution 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) There are 5 major lines of evidence for evolution: Fossil Evidence Geographical Evidence Anatomical Evidence Embryological Evidence Biochemical Evidence Fossil Evidence and Geographical Evidence Fossil Evidence: Fossils have formed in layers of rock to show gradual changes over time. Fossils found deeper in sedimentary layers are older and more simple; Fossils found higher up in these layers are younger and more complex Geographical Evidence: Darwin found animals similar in structure & function in different parts of the world, though their habitats were similar. Organisms can be similar by descent from ancestors, or they can look similar and be completely unrelated. Anatomical Evidence Anatomical Evidence: Some different organisms have very similar body structures: Homologous Structures. Example: limb structure in penguins, alligators, bats, and humans Vestigial Organs: organs that are no longer used by an organisms (like the appendix) Embryological Evidence and Biochemical Evidence Embryological Evidence: Early vertebrate embryos are very similar at early stages of development Biochemical Evidence: Certain amino acid sequences of proteins are very similar among organisms Example: These diagrams show Hemoglobin comparisons between humans and other organisms Modern Evolutionary Biology Darwin was unable to explain the source of variation (genes) and how traits were inherited. Using Mendel’s and Darwin’s work, Biologists have a much better idea of how it all works. Genetic Variation A Gene Pool include all the genes for all the traits in a population. There are usually 2 alleles for each trait. Relative Frequency describes the percentage of a certain allele’s occurrence in a population. Genetic Variation 2 Main Sources of Genetic Variation: Mutations Any change in the DNA sequence Can be beneficial of harmful Can affect organism’s phenotype (and fitness) Gene Shuffling Shuffling of genes during production of gametes in meiosis “crossing over” during meiosis Natural Selection and Single-Gene Traits Single-gene traits are those that are determined by 2 alleles and produce 2 different phenotypes. Natural Selection favors some traits more than others, so phenotypes frequencies will not always be 1:1. Natural Selection and Polygenic Traits Polygenic traits, traits that are determined by more than 1 gene (like height), produce phenotypes with a normal distribution (or bell curve) Have many possible genotypes and phenotypes. Natural Selection and Polygenic Traits Natural Selection can affect polygenic traits in 3 possible ways: 1)Directional Selection – when individuals at one end of the curve have a higher fitness than the other, the entire curve shifts in one direction. Natural Selection and Polygenic Traits 2) Stabilizing Selection – when the median phenotypes have better fitness, the ends of the curve shift inwards (the curve gets steeper) 3) Disruptive Selection – when the extreme phenotypes (ends of the curves) have better fitness, the curve begins to split in half. *Can lead to speciation Microevolution Microevolution is simply a change in gene frequency within a population. This change is due to four different processes: mutation, selection (natural and artificial), gene flow and genetic drift. Ex. Antibiotic and pesticide resistance. Microevolution: Genetic Drift Changes in the gene pool of a small population due to chance. The smaller a population, the greater the chance of deviations from the expected result. Founder Effect: an allele frequency change due to a migration of a subgroup of a population Bottleneck Effect: disasters that reduce a population size quickly and unselectively leave behind organisms that are probably not representative of the entire population’s genetic makeup Speciation – the process of forming new species from existing ones A species is defined as a group of organisms that (1) interbreed and (2) produce fertile offspring. These 2 conditions can be disrupted by 3 different types of Isolation: Speciation Behavioral Isolation Geographic Isolation Temporal Isolation Speciation: Isolation Behavioral (Reproductive) Isolation: 2 populations are capable of mating but have different courtship procedures Geographic Isolation: 2 populations are separated by a geological boundary (mountain, river, highway) Example Squirrel population split by Colorado River 10,000 years ago Example: Eastern Meadowlarks will not answer mating songs from Western Meadowlarks Speciation:Isolation Temporal Isolation: 2 or more species reproduce at different times Speciation Among Darwin’s Finches When observing the Galapagos Islands, Darwin noted several different species of birds that all turned out to be finches. These finches were thought to have come from an ancestor who immigrated to the islands from the South American mainland. Each species has carved its own niche on the islands through natural selection and many speciations (changes in beaks, food, habitat, etc). Macroevolution: A Major Factor in Speciation and Evolution Macroevolution means large-scale evolutionary changes. It includes: Mass Extinctions – widespread extinction of many organisms at one time (opens up new niches for survivors resulting in MANY new species. Adaptive Radiation – when a single species evolves into many different species Convergent Evolution – when 2 unrelated species adapt homologous structures due to their habitats Coevolution – organisms that are closely connected to each other evolve in response to one another Punctuated Equilibrium – long periods of little change interrupted by short periods of rapid change. How did Earth form? Chunks of “rock” hitting each other in space Heat generated and melted rock Elements rearranged themselves by density 4 billion years ago, rock cooled & water could remain liquid – early oceans The Early Earth A very volatile environment with poisonous gases (HCN, CO2, CO, N2, H2S, ammonia, CH4, and H2O) Some scientists believe that organic molecules could have been created from inorganic molecules combines with electricity (from lightning). An attempt to show this idea was put forth by Stanley Miller and Harold Urey in 1953. The Miller-Urey Experiment Miller and Urey created a simulation of the predicted early atmosphere of the Earth. When they combined the atmospheric components with electricity, they produced organic compounds including amino acids. The Evolution of Life Some scientists believe that RNA was the first genetic information The first life forms are thought to be single-celled prokaryotes (found from microfossils in rock) similar to bacteria. Later, photosynthetic bacteria produced oxygen. This oxygen combined with iron in the water, forming rust, which dropped to the ocean floor and left the ocean blue-green Most organisms evolved new metabolic pathways that would allow them to live in the new oxygenrich environment. The Evolution of Life Eukaryotic Cells evolved from prokaryotes that began evolving internal cell membranes. Some small prokaryote then entered a larger prokaryote to form a mutualistic relationship. These smaller prokaryotes were able to use oxygen (aerobic respiration) and evolved into what is now our mitochondria…recall that mitochondria have different DNA than the rest of the cell. This is called the Endosymbiotic Theory. The evolution of Sexual Reproduction (meiosis) allowed much more genetic variation among eukaryotes. The Endosymbiotic Theory A descriptive Diagram: