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Biology 1 ReKaps Lesson Book Pages 139-168 Review Homework for Biology 1 Reproductive System and Development Test 1 Generalized Eukaryotic Cell Test 1 Microbiology Test 1 Biology Subject Tests 1-3 Preview Homework for Physics 2 Physics Review Notes Chapters 4, 6-9 Thermodynamics Workshop and Quiz Magnetism Workshop and Quiz DC and AC Circuits Workshop and Quiz Physics Foundation Review Unit 2 Contents Science ReKap ............................................................................................................... 1 Passage I ........................................................................................................................ 2 Membrane Traffic ............................................................................................................ 2 Enzymes ......................................................................................................................... 4 ATP and Cellular Metabolism .......................................................................................... 5 Passage II ....................................................................................................................... 6 Mitosis and Meiosis ......................................................................................................... 7 Male and Female Reproductive Systems ........................................................................ 8 Embryogenesis ............................................................................................................... 9 Genetics and Pedigree Analysis ................................................................................... 10 Passage III .................................................................................................................... 12 Science ReKap Membrane Traffic: Cells save energy by using diffusion when transporting down a concentration gradient, but active transport is used when transporting against the concentration gradient. Enzymes: Enzymes speed up processes and are specific to certain reactions so the body can control what is being produced. Cellular Metabolism: Glucose is broken down into pyruvate, acetyl CoA, and finally CO2 to create energy directly as well as indirectly through electron carriers and the electron transport chain Mitosis and Meiosis: Mitosis creates two identical daughter cells in most body tissue, whereas meiosis creates four non-identical gametes to allow for genetic diversity. Reproduction: Gametes produced via meiosis come together to form a zygote, which grows into a morula, blastula, gastrula, and eventually neurula. Genetics: Dominant and recessive traits can be tracked by analyzing their appearance in family trees. This is the last session in Unit 1, so we will focus less on your passage mapping skills in future sessions as they should be adequate at this point. If you are still struggling with passage mapping, please let us know! Passage I: P-142 Type: Informational P1: SET (original eukaryote formed from one prokaryote engulfing another) P2: evidence: mitochondria P3: ev.: chloroplasts P4: ev.: spirochetes (for motility, mitosis) Question 1 Stop: wordy, involve genetic material Think: mitochondria genome similar to prokaryote (e.g. bacteria) Predict: small, circular DNA Match: C Question 2 Stop: wordy (make a good prediction) Think: SET evidence Predict: no eukaryotes, prokaryotes are symbiotes Match: B Question 3 Stop: cell processes Think: P4 Predict: spirochetes help with motility, e.g. mitosis Match: A Return to Top Membrane Traffic: P-144 Plasma membrane: controls what goes in and out of the cell permeable molecules are small and non-polar non-permeable molecules are large or polar (e.g. ions) The membrane consists of: phospholipids: hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tail proteins (carrier proteins, ion channels) cholesterol: for membrane fluidity Diffusion Moves: permeable molecules (non-polar and small) down their concentration gradient Requires: concentration gradient; requires no E Osmosis Moves: water down its concentration gradient Requires: concentration gradient (difference in osmolarity); requires no E Tonicity/Osmolarity Hypotonic: lower solute concentration Hypertonic: higher solute concentration Isotonic: same solute concentration Note: these terms are ALWAYS relative, meaning you are comparing one thing to another. Assume you are comparing the given object to its environment unless otherwise specified. Facilitated Diffusion Moves: impermeable particles down their concentration gradient Requires: protein channels; concentration gradient; requires no E (other than small, initial E cost to form channel) Active Transport Moves: impermeable particles (polar or medium-size) against their concentration gradient Requires: energy Primary Active Transport: direct transfer, uses ATP to transport, channel is an ATPase Secondary Active Transport: co-transport (symport) or counter-transport (antiport); pairing with transport of a different molecule down its concentration gradient to harness that energy Endocytosis: large material being absorbed, e.g. phagocytosis, pinocytosis Exocytosis: large material being expelled, e.g. neurotransmitter release (packets) both can also be used to rapidly change size of cell because cell uses membrane to make/absorb vesicles P-145 Critical Thinking 1. Fish moving from salt water (isotonic environment) to fresh water (hypotonic environment); water would rush in to fish cells 2. Increased glucose in blood (hyperglycemia) overwhelms re-absorption in kidneys, resulting in glucose in urine. Glucose in urine causes urine to be hypertonic, thereby absorbing more water and resulting in increased urine output. Increased urine output results in dehydration/increased thirst/decrease in blood pressure. Hyperglycemia can also result in blood becoming hypertonic, thereby absorbing more fluid from cells/interstitium, also affecting blood pressure. 3. 3 total moles solute on left after dissociation of 1.5 M NaCl into 1.5 M Na and 1.5 M Cl versus 2 moles solute on right; water moves left, resulting in higher water level on left. Question 4 Stop: increase/decrease pump action (ATP use) Think: net effect of pumping one ion out means that pump use decreases osmolarity of cell relative to environment, slowing the rush of water into the cell Predict: cell needs to restore decreased osmolarity relative to new environment so needs to pump out even more solute; ATP consumption increases Match: A Return to Top Enzymes: P-146 Increase rate of reaction by lowering activation energy; have no effect on thermodynamics/favorability/equilibrium of rxn Structure: substrate: molecule affected by enzyme active site: where substrate binds allosteric site: binds with signaling molecules to change enzyme conformation and therefore regulate activity Theories of enzyme/substrate binding: Lock and Key: the enzyme and substrate fit together exactly (no longer the accepted theory) Induced Fit: the presence of the appropriate substrate causes a conformational change in the enzyme such that the enzyme and substrate fit together (the accepted theory) Reaction Energy Profiles: an enzyme changes the rate of a reaction, but not its equilibrium point or whether it will be spontaneous or non-spontaneous Enzyme activity is affected by pH, concentration, temperature, co-enzymes, co-factors Note: The term “co-factor" is sometimes limited to inorganic molecules (e.g. metals), with "co-enzyme" or "prosthetic group" referring to organic molecules that bind loosely or tightly to their enzyme, respectively All types bind to enzymes to help regulate activity Question 5 Stop: graphs Think: rate vs. pH; rate vs. temp Predict: pepsin is in stomach, which has a low pH and is at body temp (37° C, 98° F) Match: D Inhibition: preventing an enzyme from binding to a specific substrate to regulate speed of reaction and maintain homeostasis Competitive: inhibitor binds reversibly to the active site, sometimes temporarily blocking the substrate from binding Non-competitive: inhibitor deactivates the enzyme by temporarily binding at the allosteric site Uncompetitive: inhibitor binds reversibly to a site which only becomes available after the substrate has bound to the active site of the enzyme Irreversible: inhibitor binds permanently to active site or otherwise destroys the enzyme Negative Feedback: inhibition of a reaction pathway due to accumulation of a product or intermediate produced by that same pathway Enzymatic pathways – inhibited competitively or non-competitively Hormonal pathways – release of hormone inhibited Positive Feedback: up-regulation of a reaction pathway due to accumulation of a product or intermediate produced by that same pathway rare in the human body due to potential to disrupt equilibrium and result in overproduction examples: oxytocin (causes uterine contractions); platelet activation (causes blood clots) Return to Top ATP and Cellular Metabolism: P-148 ATP is composed of 3 negative phosphate groups forced together, creating high energy bonds that RELEASE energy when broken, unlike normal chemical bonds Glycolysis is the anaerobic breakdown of glucose (6C) to 2 molecules of pyruvate (3C). occurs in the cytosol Anaerobic metabolism occurs in the absence of O2 and results in 2 ATP per glucose Fermentation generates lactic acid in muscle cells or ethanol in yeast in order to regenerate NAD+ for further glycolysis Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of O2 and results in 36 ATP per glucose. Pyruvate decarboxylation is the conversion of pyruvate (3C) to acetyl CoA (2C). occurs in mitochondrial matrix (requires 2 ATP to transport both pyruvates) Acetyl CoA (2C) enters the Krebs cycle to generate GTP (ATP), NADH, and FADH2, leaving all carbon as CO2 occurs in the mitochondrial matrix Electron transport chain (ETC) uses oxygen as the final e- acceptor. ETC occurs on the inner mitochondrial membrane. NADH (x10) creates 3 ATP for a total of 30 o NADH interacts with cytochrome complex I and moves to III and IV FADH2 (x2) creates 2 ATP for a total of 4 o FADH2 has lower energy electrons so can only interact with cytochrome complex II (no resultant ATP) and moves to III and IV *Note: You are NOT expected to know all the details of the individual rxns on page 150, only general ideas! Focus mainly on what happens to the carbons and where the energy comes from* P-151 Question 6 Stop: enzymes in cellular metabolism Think: last step = ETC Predict: oxygen is receptor of eMatch: D Return to Top Passage II: P-152 Type: Experimental P1: background on ETC P2: Exp 1: mitoch isolated; ADP added Fig1: results: ADP added is prop. to O2 consumed P3: Exp 2: inhibitors added Fig2: results: inhibition Question 7 Stop: times Think: lowest aerobic respiration since zero acetyl CoA production if no O2 present Predict: latest time with oxygen concentration closest to 0 Match: D Question 8 Stop: concentrations Think: directly proportional relationship from graphs (see below) Predict: 1.5 - 0.5 = 1.0 Match: C Graph shows adding 0.6 µmol ADP results in 0.25 µmol O2 being used for a ratio of 0.6 to 0.25 If 1.2 µmol ADP is added, this will cause a drop in the same ratio; since twice as much ADP is added, twice as much O2 is used: 1.2 µmol ADP → 0.5 µmol O2 drop 1.5 µmol O2 µmol is available and 0.5 µmol O2 is used, then 1.0 µmol is left Note: be careful when reading any graph since exact data points might be difficult to read, so be both careful and flexible You could have also used the first ADP administration of 0.3 ADP and gotten a similar ration of 0.3 to 1.5, which would have worked as well Question 9 Stop: molecules Think: ox. phos. only occurs in aerobic respiration Predict: Needs O2, NADH, FADH2, ADP, inorganic phosphate Match: A Return to Top Mitosis and Meiosis: P-155 Cell Cycle: process by which replication occurs cell spends 90% of its time in interphase (G and S); 10% in mitosis G (Gap) phases: growth o Go: exiting of cell cycle, can be permanent or temporary S (Synthesis) phase: doubling of DNA Sister chromatids – exact duplicates attached together via the centromere, which has kinetochores where spindle fibers will attach “Chromosome” may be used to refer to either the single chromatid or to the pair of sister chromatids attached at the centromere Mitosis: cell division with preservation of chromosome number Phases (PMAT): Prophase: nucleus degrades, chromosomes condense, centrioles align within centrosomes Metaphase: sister chromatids (2) are aligned by spindle fibers from centrioles on metaphase plate Anaphase: sister chromatids are pulled apart Telaphase: cytokinesis, nuclei reformed Meiosis: cell division with halving of chromosome number Phase differences: Prophase I: crossing over occurs Metaphase I: homologous pairs are aligned (4) Anaphase: homologous pairs are pulled apart, leaving sister chromatids together Telaphase: still occurs as in mitosis (even though meiosis II will follow, nuclei are still briefly reformed) Meiosis II is nearly identical to mitosis but starts with 1/2 the number of chromosomes (haploid). Return to Top Male and Female Reproductive Systems: P-156 Spermatogenesis: classic meiosis forming four gametes (spermatids), which mature into sperm through spermiogenesis by growing a tail and removing excess organelles and cytoplasm Pathway of sperm: SEVEn UP Seminiferous Tubules Epididymis Vas Deferens (Ductus Deferens) Ejaculatory Duct (nothing) Urethra Penis Oogenesis: all primary oocytes have already been produced at birth and have entered meiosis, becoming arrested at prophase I Once monthly after menarche, ~ one ovum reenters meiosis, continuing until arresting at metaphase II Meiosis quickly finishes if ovum is fertilized P-157 Question 10 Stop: numbers Think: 1 mutant and 1 normal chromosome will both be replicated Predict: 2 mutants, 2 normal, 4 total Match: B Return to Top Embryogenesis: P-158 Fertilization: joining of ovum and sperm Development: zygote → morula → blastula (implantation occurs at this stage) → gastrula Differentiation: one-way process in which cells are specialized by turning on some genes and off others Induction is the process during which chemical messages are sent from one cell to determine the differentiation of another cell. o e.g. development of eyes (optic vesicles from neural tube induce formation of lens from epithelium, which in turn induces optic vesicles to develop into retina) Note: when looking at the images on P-158 you are looking down at the embryo; the head would be coming out of the page at you and the feet would go into the page. Totipotent (omnipotent) cells are undifferentiated and can develop into any cell type, including the outside layers of the embryo, such as the placenta Pluripotent cells are mostly undifferentiated and can form any of the 3 primary germ layers but not the outer layers of the embryo Primary Germ Layers: Ectoderm: “attract-o-derm” (anything that would attract you to someone else) Endoderm: “endernal” organs (most internal organs) Mesoderm: “means-o-derm” (the means to get something from one place to another, e.g. the circulatory system is the means for blood to get around, muscles are the means for the skeleton to get around) Question 11 Stop: primary germ layers (not A) Think: circulatory, excretory (systems involving extensive motion) Predict: means-o-derm Match: D Return to Top Genetics and Pedigree Analysis: P-160 Allele: any variation of a gene Dominant: always expressed; expressed in a heterozygote Recessive: only expressed in the absence of the dominant; not expressed/silent in a heterozygote Genotype: genetic makeup Phenotype: expressed genes, physical traits Pedigree Key ppen square: unaffected male ppen circle: unaffected female filled square: affected male filled circle: affected female half-filled: carrier Autosomal Recessive: Rr x Rr CAN skip generations pedigrees without skipping can be autosomal recessive, too Autosomal Dominant: Rr x rr CANNOT skip generations P-161 Is This Autosomal Recessive? Might or might not be; we have no way of knowing! *Note: you can prove recessivity by generational skipping; not skipping does not prove anything!* Remember: prevalence does not equal dominance Sex Linked Recessive: XY x XXc affects more males than females can skip generations Sex Linked Dominant is uninteresting; behaves similarly to autosomal dominant Y-linked is rare; every male is affected and females never are Punnett Square: Write maternal genotype on top, paternal genotype on side with one allele per section Fill in alleles down columns and across rows. Example: AB x O 0% OO, 50% AO, 50% BO, 0% AB P-162 Critical Thinking 1 4 possibilities: 1 affected, 2 carriers, 1 unaffected offspring is not shaded so cannot be affected 2/3 of remaining options are carriers Penetrance: how much genes actually affect phenotype (versus environmental factors) many genes provide a range and environment dictates where in that range an individual falls o e.g. height: genes vs. nutrition 0% = no genetic influence 100% = no environmental influence P-162 Critical Thinking 2 i) Sex-linked recessive due to more males affected, generation skipping ii) Females can be carriers and should be tested. Males do not need to be tested because they cannot be carriers; would either display trait or have no disease alleles. iii) Gen4 male has 25% chance of being affected. (There is a 50% chance this male’s mother is a carrier and a 50% chance that mother would pass the trait to the male. When outcome depends on two or more probabilities, multiply those probabilities together: 1/2*1/2 = ¼ = 25%) iv) Gen4 female has 25% chance of being a carrier. (see above reasoning) Chromosomal Mutations: missing/extra genetic material, usually results in a non-viable embryo, depending on what is duplicated and how much Disjunction: process by which sister/homologous chromatids are separated Non-disjunction: chromatids are not all separated equally, resulting in one gamete with n-1 chromosomes and one gamete with n+1 chromosomes can also be partial non-disjunction where only a piece or arm of a chromosome is improperly separated Monosomy: only 1 copy of a chromosome only viable full monosomy is monosomy X (Turner Syndrome) some partial monosomies are viable (e.g. 5p deletion of cri du chat syndrome) Trisomy: 3 copies of a chromosome can be viable if in sex chromosomes (e.g. XXY/Kleinfelter; XXX/Triple X) can be viable with Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome) other trisomies can be viable but often result in death during childhood (e.g. Trisomy 18 (Edwards syndrome) and Trisomy 13 (Patau Syndrome)) Return to Top Passage III: P-164 Type: Informational P1: chromosomal abnormalities (bad) P2: structural problems, translocation Types (balanced/unbalanced; stable/unstable) P3: numerical abnormalities. P4: trisomy/monosomy examples Table 1: spontaneous abortions and chromosomal abnormalities Table 2: frequencies of trisomies Table 3: frequencies of sex chromosome abnormalities Fig 1: Robertsonian translocations Question 12 Stop: parts of DNA Think: unstable translocation = P2; cannot undergo cell division Predict: only centromere is directly involved in mitosis Match: A Question 13 Stop: errors Think: partial trisomy = structural problem = P2; three copies of only some genes Predict: additional information = unbalanced Match: B Question 14 (this is pseudo-discrete) Stop: wordy, similar Think: Down Syndrome = trisomy 21 Predict: trisomies come from nondisjunction Match: C Question 15 Stop: gametes A, B, C, D Think: normal = 1 copy 14, 21 Predict: A is normal, B still has normal amount of genetic material, rest do not Match: B (A and B) Return to Top