Download Human Tissues IV

CLASS: 11:00-12:00
DATE: November 2, 2010
PROFESSOR: Cotlin
Gram-Negative Bacteria
Scribe: Bo Bradford
Proof: Megan Guntham
Page 1 of 7
VII. BLOOD
a. blood smear of mostly red blood cells
VIII. HEMATOCRIT
a. hematocrit= the volume of packed red blood cells in the blood; a.k.a. the conc. Of red blood cells
b. volume of cells and plasma is 45% cells & 55% plasma- white blood cells only make up around 1%
(very negligible)
c. mens tend to have higher normal resting hematocrit, females generally have lower hematocrit due to
monthly menstrual cycle
d. after centrifugation of a blood sample we wood see packed erythocytes, leukocytes & plasma
e. erythrocytes are more dense due to their iron so the red blood cells (RBC’s) pattern to the bottom of
the tube after centrifugation, white blood cells will not due to lack of iron. This unique concentrated
layer is often called the “Buffy Coat”
IX. COMPOSITION WHOLE BLOOD
a. whole blood is composed of connective tissue, it’s cells & extracellular matrix; the matrix is the
plasma, again plasma is the liquid portion of blood & occupies 55% of whole blood
b before centrifuging a given blood sample, an anticoagulation factor is added to the sample which
prevents clotting. Plasma that LACKS coagulation factors is referred to as SERUM
c. Plasma – coagulation factors = SERUM
d. Again, 45% of whole blood is attributed to red blood cells, water & 7 % of proteins, some of which
include
1-ALBUMIN-which functions as a carrying protein (fats, hormones, small peptides) within blood,
and also retains osmotic pressure
2- IMMUNGLOBULINS
3- FIBRINOGEN-acts as a clotting factor & is in an inactive but converted to active upon clotting
cascade event
4- REGULATORY PROTEINS- transport proteins & hormones
5- also have other molecules such as electrolytes, sugars, small peptides, gases, waste
f. WBC’s & platelets compose the last 1%
g. platelets are derived from cells called megakaryocytes,
h. 5 types of white blood cells
1-neutrophils (granulocytes)-the most abundant WBC’s
2- basophils (granulocytes)
3-eosinophils (granulocytes)
4-monocytes (agranulocytes)-phagocytic cells, that leave circulation get into tissues & become
macrophages
5- lymphocytes (agranulocytes)
i. basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils are all involved with immediate immunity; they can secrete factors
that can attack for bacteria & viruses
j. macrophages are phagocytes & lymphocytes are involved with long term immunity
X. CARTILAGE
a. this is a section of cartilage; cartilage has unique characterisitics
b. cells found here are called CHONDROCYTES
c. purple-ish material is the matrix
XI. CARTILAGE II
a. cartilage is part of the skeletal system, its involved with skeletal formation & allows for support,
flexibility.
b. provides precursor model for bone formation
c. found in ear, nose, throat, all of our joints, in the resp. tract
d. composed of cells & matrix; the primary collagen in cartilage is COLLAGEN II- bone mainly has
COLLAGEN I
e. other than collagen II ,cartilage is composed of chondrocytes & chondroblasts
XII. FEATURES OF CARTILAGE
a. in contrast to connective tissue, cartilage is avascular
b. 3 types of cartilage-HYALINE, FIBROCARTILAGE, & ELASTIC- that are all surrounded by a
PERICHONDRIUM which allows cartilage to act as a sponge
CLASS: 11:00-12:00
Scribe: Bo Bradford
DATE: November 2, 2010
Proof: Megan Guntham
PROFESSOR: Cotlin
Gram-Negative Bacteria
Page 2 of 7
c. PERICHONDRIUM= dense connective tissue border around the cartilage (tissues of deep connective
tissue that wraps around the cartilage)
d. Within the cartilage, we have condrocytes that are housed within lacunae and are grouped into
isogenic groups surrounded by inter-territorial matrix & secreting matrix. All of these groups are
constantly dividing
e. Cartilage gives us flexible support and acts as a shock & pressure absorber
f. We can keep blood from circulation & lymphatics away from cartilage
g. Water can diffuse into cartilage creating an influx & causing the cartilage to swell. Under pressure the
cartilage can undergo compression, water will be release it’s content (glysoaminoglycans, etc.)
outward into the environment.
h. It is avascular because of its role, they are tightly bordered by the perichondrium which allows the
cartilage to play its role
XIII.CHONDROCYTES W/ MATRIX
a. picture of chondrocytes sitting within their respective lacunae
b. Collagen type II is also represented in picture along with ground substance
XIV. TYPES OF CARTILAGE
a. hyaline=most common found in the nose, surface end of joints, at the end of our bones, in our ribs,
lining our resp. tract- trachi & bronchi
b. elastic= found in ears, larynx; looks like hyaline but has a lot of elastic fibers instead
c. fibrocartilage= is a mix that has chondrocytes that line up with one another & a lot of collagenous
bundles. Found in the intervertebral disks of our spines, and in tendons and ligaments
XV. HYALINE CARTILAGE
a. stain that colors cartilage blue
b. perichondrium is highlighted around the clear colored CHONDROCYTES ( its dense & dark
blue). Each condrocyte is free from contact from adjacent cells
c. carilage is surrounded by dense connective tissue
d. the white spaces surrounding the cartilage is due to natural seperation upon staining &
sectioning.
XVI. ELASTIC CARTILAGE
a. section of elastic cartilage that resembles hyaline, but enriched with elastic fibers
b. rich in elastic cartilage
XVII. NO TITLE
a.
XVIII. FIBROCARTILAGE
a. section of fibrocartilage
b. notice the chondrocytes are organized into rows with one another
c. rows of cartilage bundles as well
d. provides additional strength by being a shock absorber & is stronger than the other two types
XIX. BONE TISSUE
a. outer/ lateral layer of bone is lined with articular cartilage
b. two types of mature bone: COMPOUND BONE & SPONGY BONE
c. material to outside or lateral portion of pic is compact bone bone
d. the middle portion of the bone with the white branches is spongy bone,
e. the dark spaces in b/t is the bone marrow
f. the main difference b/t cartilage & bone is the fact that bone is in fact very vascular
XX. FUNCTIONS OF BONE & TYPES
a. bones function in support, protection, provide for locomotion, huge store of calcium, magnesium,
sodium, houses all of our bone marrow (which is found in the interior of all long bones)
b. refers back to previous slide & highlights bone marrow once more
c. two types- COMPACT & SPONGY (CANCELLOUS)
d. cancellous bone are fine irregular trabecular plates
e. compact bone is highly ordered & contains HAVERSION SYSTEMS. Compact bone bares much of the
weight.
XXI. COMPOSITION
a. matrix has proteoglycans, collagen type I, and is enriched with over 50% inorganic material ( a lot of
calcium phosphates) which gives rigidity to bone & is compromised in osteoporosis which is
associated with the degradation of bone; you loose this matrix that gives rigidity to the bone.
b. Looks solid & dead, but it’s very alive & always regenerating & remodeling
c. HIGHLY vascularized
CLASS: 11:00-12:00
Scribe: Bo Bradford
DATE: November 2, 2010
Proof: Megan Guntham
PROFESSOR: Cotlin
Gram-Negative Bacteria
Page 3 of 7
XXII. PRIMARY CELLS IN BONE
a. osteoblasts- immature cells that are just beginning to secrete bone material/ matrix-don’t divide
(osteoid=bone tissue)
b. osteocytes- once the osteoblasts become trapped within matrix they become osteocytes-don’t divide;
similar to the condrocytes that were discussed earlier
c. osteoclasts- macrophages that degrade/ breakdown bone, important in bone remodeling as well as
calcium regulation within the blood (bone acts as the store for calcium)
d. as our skull is growing & reforming there is a continuum of bone being laid on the exterior by the
osteoblasts & broken down on the inferioir by the osteoclasts
XXIII. BONE CELLS
a. appearance of primary cells in a long bone
b. compact with spongy bone in b/t
c. osteoblasts are located on the lateral portion of the bone & osteocytes are trapped within bone
formation
XXIV. BONE CELLS II
a. primary cells, bone marrow, compact & spongy bone are further highlighted here
XXV. GROUND BONE
a. this is what ground bone, or compact bone really looks like; all that is left is the inorganic matter
b. all brown spots represent where an osteocyte will be.
c. This is what ground/compact bone looks like in contrast to spongy bone-spongy bone is just pieces
of bones
XXVI. SPONGY BONE
a. Section of spongy bone
b. this is what the inside of long bones looks like
c. it’s surrounded by compact/ground bone
XXVII. MUSCLE TISSUE
a. section of skeletal muscle
b. skeletal muscle has a very dense striated appearance due to the arrangement of its fibers
XXVIII.TYPES OF MUSCLE
a. 3 types
i. SKELETAL- voluntary control, associated w/ bone & allows us to move (involved with
the action of walking or balancing oneself) & is striated
ii. SMOOTH- involuntary controlled, involuntary control found lining GI tract (which
controls peristasis), blood vessels, NO STRIATIONS
iii. CARDIAC- involuntary controlled, found within the heart, striated
XXIX. COMMON FEATURES OF ALL MUSCLE TISSUE
a. all muscle is from a MESODERMAL origin
b. ER in muscle is called sarcoplasmic reticulum and has extremely HIGH concentrations of calcium
sequestered inside itself .
c. ER in muscle cells- SR- plays vital role in muscle contraction by regulating calcium for EACH
contraction. All contractions, regardless of the type still depend upon actin & myosin.
d. The cytoplasm in muscle is called the SARCOPLASM
XXX. SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
a. skeletal muscle contraction is quick, forceful similar to cardiac but its under VOLUNTARY control
b. skeletal muscle is bound by a connective tissue, most muscle is bundled within connective tissues
XXXI. STRUCUTRE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
a. EPIMYSIUM- surrounds the entire, whole bundle
b. PERIMYSIUM- surrounds the intermediate, smaller bundles
c. ENDOMYSIUM- surrounde the individual MUSCLE FIBERS
d. Every muscle cell is under voluntary control & privately innervated by a respected neuron; there is
NO communication b/t adjacent skeletal muscle cells
e. If we’re talking about the bicep muscle, where talking about the entire bundle of muscle
f. An individual muscle cell=muscle fiber or the individual cells that make up the whole muscle
(tricep/bicep)
XXXII. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
a. Striatied skeletal muscle
b. alternating dark & light lines
c. both skeletal muscle & cardiac muscle have this distinct banding pattern & this also gives the muscle
the ability to generate quick, forceful contractions
CLASS: 11:00-12:00
Scribe: Bo Bradford
DATE: November 2, 2010
Proof: Megan Guntham
PROFESSOR: Cotlin
Gram-Negative Bacteria
Page 4 of 7
XXXIII. EM OF STRIATED MUSCLE
a. this banding pattern is nothing more than the arrangements of actin & myosin (other accessory
proteins)
b. there are repeating units present on the section shown; one of these individual repeating units is
called a SARCOMERE.
XXXIV. SARCOMERE
a. functional unit of skeletal/ cardiac muscle is the sarcomere; the smallest repetitive unit
b. the dark lines in this section are known as the-Z LINES- which ultimately define the individual
sarcomere
XXXV. ARRANGEMENT OF THICK & THIN FILAMENTS
a. Simply, a sarcomere is just how the the actin & myosin filaments are arranged with one another
b. green=actin (thin filaments)
c. pink= myosin (think filaments)
d. during muscle relaxation, there is only partial overlap; upon contraction the degree of overlap
increases significantly, the size & length of filaments always stay the same.
XXXVI. MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRATION
a. at rest we have a partial overalap of the myosin & actin fibers that are arranged in a particular pattern
b. under contraction, we increase the degree to which the fibers overlap one another
c. when the cell contracts, where just pulling things CLOSER together by the myosin heads grabbing
the actin and pulling them together (tighter).
d. When a muscle is relaxed- everything is extended; When a muscle is contracted- were just pulling
everything tighter together
e. Again, there are additional factors that keep the actin & myosin filaments the same lengths, they don’t
dec. / inc. in size…only the spaces b/t them!
f. ALL STRIATED MUSCLE IS JUST THIS CYCLING B/T STRETCHING AND CONTRACTIN MUCLES.
g. Muscle function is a continuous process of holding the contraction, releasing, and holding again
XXXVII. SARCOMERE FUCTIONAL STAGES
a. picture highlighting RELAXATION at the top of the schematic diagram, below the sarcomere is
beginning to undergo contraction, and below the sarcomere is undergoing CONTRACTION.
XXXVIII. NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
a. in skeletal muscle each individual muscle fiber ( she refers back to slide 31) is privately innervated by
it’s own neuron
b. Voluntary means that every skeletal muscle cell (muscle fiber) has a neuromuscular junction; which is
very different from smooth muscle, each cell operates individually.
c. The neurotransmitter involved @ these neuromuscular junctions is acetylcholine
d. Every muscle cell within a biceps muscle is contacted/innervated by a nerve; this allows us to tell
each individual cell what to do
XXXIX. CARDIAC MUSCLE
a. striated muscle as well, has exact same sarcomere arrangement as skeletal muscle
b. calcium, actin, myosin are also all involved
c. Uniquely cardiac muscle has alot of brancing muscle fibers, which is different from skeletal & each
fiber is joined by these intercalated disks
XL.CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE
a. Cardiac muscle needs to be involuntary, strong & forceful, and create a wave like contraction
b. INTERCALATED DISKS-SPECIFIC TO CARDIAC MUSCLE
c. all contractile elements are the same
d. Intercalated disks provide connection between the muscle fibers in cardiac muscle, where as skeletal
muscles have NO contact with one another (actually have Connective tissue in b/t them separating
them from one another.
XLI. EM OF CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE
a. exact same arrangement as skeletal muscle of actin & myosin
b. cells are interconnected by intercalated disks
c. intercalated disks- junctions b/t cardiac cells
XLII. JUNCTIONAL OF INTERCALALTED DISK
a. disks join adjacent cells via 2 types of adhering molecules: ZONULA ADHERENS & DESMOSOMES
(which are the exact same junctions that she spoke about yesterday) both just keep connective
tissues connected to one another; physically bind cells together
CLASS: 11:00-12:00
Scribe: Bo Bradford
DATE: November 2, 2010
Proof: Megan Guntham
PROFESSOR: Cotlin
Gram-Negative Bacteria
Page 5 of 7
b. gap junctions-allow for movement of substances b/t cells & form the tiny little pores b/t the cardiac
muscle cells
XLIII. STRUCTURE OF THE INTERCALATED DISK
a. picture highlighting intercalated disk
c. A single neuromuscular junction tells each individual cell to contract in skeletal muscle via
depolarization; but in cardiac cells we don’t want independent control of each fiber. Instead, we have
a set of fibers/cells that are all controlled by one nerve/neuron & since these cells are all connected to
one another via these intercalated disks unique intercalated disks this allows for ions to flow from
one cell to the next causing depolarization; creating a wave of contraction
d. Intercalated disks keep the cells during forceful contraction but also allow for communication b/t one
another
XLIV. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF CARDIA MUSCLE
a. nice pic of cardiac muscle
b. lots of sdipose tissue located with cardiac muscle
c. cardiac muscle gets the majority of its energy supply from fatty acids & phosphorylation, this is why
cardiac muscle requires high stores of fats.
d. there are glycogen deposits found within cardiac muclse, but only used in times of exertion (fight or
flight response)
e. important balance of fats is important to prevent blockages
XLV. SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE
a. has actin & myosin just like skeletal & cardiac
b. unlike striated muscle, smooth muscle has a different, distinct apperance
c. depends on calcium for contraction
d. fibers form a wave-like contraction
e. smooth muscle also have gap junctions adjoining adjacent fibers
f. smooth muscle fibers are described as being “Fushiform” & tapered, which allows them to pack on
top of one another
XLVI. SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE
a. muscle fibers are enclosed by basal lamina & network of reticular fibers
b. also have gap junctions adjoining adjacent fibers
c. smooth muscle fibers are described as being “ Fushiform” & tapered, which allows them to stack
upon one another.
XLVII. SUGGESTED MODEL FOR SMOOTH MUSCLE CONTRATION
a. no sarcomeres present in smooth muscle
b. DENSE BODIES- are analogous to the z-line in a given sarcomere, they provide attachment for the
actin filaments within each fiber
c. dense bodies at plasma membrane & intracellularly, so when a contraction occurs-again everything
moves inward. It’s a very similar movement to skeletal/cardiac contraction
d. involuntary as well; the gap junctions facilitate in involuntary control & allows contraction to pass
from cell to cell.
XLVIII. REGENERATION OF MUSCLE TISSUE
a. skeletal muscle cells themselves cannot regenerate & repair, they can’t undergo mitosis.
b. cardiac muscle cells cannot regenerate themselves, no healthy supply of stem cells; damaged muscle
is thus replaced by scar tissue
c. smooth muscle CAN replicate individually, undergo Hyperplasia ( Inc. in cell number), Hypertrophy
(inc. in cell size), & undergo mitosis
XLIX. NERVE TISSUE
a. picture of tissue from nervous tissue section
L. ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
a. CNS= consists of the brain & spinal chord-ONLY
b. PNS- everything else in nervous system besides brain & spinal chord. Spinal nerves, Cranial Nevers,
ganglia, peripheral nevers, etc.
LI. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
a. can be grouped into somatic or the autonomic nervous system
b. somatic= a.k.a. the motor system;plays a role in the sensory & motor functions performed by the
body.
c. autonomic= all of the other things our body does, that we don’t tell it to do; digestion, respiration,
urinary function, etc.
a. SYMPATHETIC-flight or flght response
CLASS: 11:00-12:00
DATE: November 2, 2010
PROFESSOR: Cotlin
Gram-Negative Bacteria
b. PARASYMPATHETIC- rest & digest response
Scribe: Bo Bradford
Proof: Megan Guntham
Page 6 of 7
LII. NERVE ORGANIZATION
a. nerves are bound by connective tissue
b. nerves- the sciatic/trigeminal nerve- are just really bundles of nerve fibers/ neurons
c. ganglia house away the nerve cell bodies
d. nerves are surrounded by similar connective tissue found in muscle fibers
a. epineurium
b. perineurium
c. endoneurium
LIII. NO TITLE
a. pic of a bundle of nerve fibers
b. nerves can be myelinated or unmyelinated , they can be motor or sensory
c. peripheral nerves are channels for all the fibers out to the peripheral parts of the body
d. epineurium, perineurium, endoneurium are all just connective tissue that holds everything together
LIV. TYPES OF NEURONS
a. neurons (nerve fibers) can be classified by what they look like, by their shape & structure, their
function, their neurotransmitters they release or respond to, and whether their excitatory or inhibitory,
or sensory or motor
b. can be multipolar, bipolar, or unipolar
a. MULTIPOLAR- multiple processes; a central axon & many dendrites
b. BIPOLAR-two branches only, an axon & a dendrite
c. UNIPOLAR-sometimes called pseudounipolar; have one short process that then branches
LV. ORGANIZATION OF TYPICAL NEURON
a. all neurons have similar structure
b. dendrite= the receiving end; short processes extending from the cell body
c. axon= conducting end
d. axon terminal- transmitting end
e. for every nerve transmission the signal travels down the neuron from the dendriteto the cell body
to the axonaxon terminal
f. axons have many, many branches
g. in skeletal muscle we have a long axon fiber that branches at the very end to communicate with each
individual muscle fiber; only one neuron involved but many branches in order to trigger many cell
LVI. MOTOR NEURON
a. typical motor neuron cell body
b. all the red dots are stained for synapsis (region where nerve cells come together)
c. a pre-synaptic structure (secretes the neurotransmitter) synapses with a post- synaptic synaspe
(receives the neurotransmitter)
d. one cell body is getting a huge influx of signal from the other
LVII. MYELINATED VS. UNMYELINATED
a. myelination is in a sense just like insulation for the nerve cell body
b. action potential is a cycle of depolarization & hyperpolarization; in essence it’s just a movement of
ions or a movement of an electrical current. Functions just like an electrical wire; the more insulated,
the more efficient the neuron is.
c. axon protrudes out of the top on the figure of the left
d. each projection is a single axon, and the blue axons are the unmyelinated axons
e. dark yellow cell=Schwann cell
f. Schwann Cell- cell that wraps around the axon fiber, the cell itself is the insulation or the myelin
sheath- the myelin sheath is actually the Schwann cell
g. Unmyelinated axons don’t have any myelin or insulation, they are still cushioned by the Schwann cell.
LVIII. STRUCTURE OF MYELINATED NERVES
a. highlights Schwann cell & myelin
b. cross section of a nerve
c. notice that the Schwann cell just wraps around the axon
LIX. MYELINATED AXONS
a. striated appearance of the nerve with extracellular matrix in b/t
b. the cell is just wrapping around the axon providing layers and layers of plasma membrane which
essentially is lipid insulation
c. MAIN COMPONENT OF MYELIN SHEATH= LIPID
CLASS: 11:00-12:00
Scribe: Bo Bradford
DATE: November 2, 2010
Proof: Megan Guntham
PROFESSOR: Cotlin
Gram-Negative Bacteria
Page 7 of 7
LX. A PERIPHERAL NEURON & ITS MYELIN SHEATH
a. long axis view of a neuron
b. NODES OF RANVIER- are the regions that separate the individual myelin sheaths
c. the outer red capsules are the Schwann cells & the bulges are their respected nucleus
d. LAYERS OF MYELIN are essentially LAYERS OF SCHWANN CELLS
LXI. NODES OF RANVIER
a. section of nervous tissue
b. the white cloudy regions highlighted by the blue arrow (above) are separated by a distinct
barrier-this is the node of ranvier
LXII. STRUCTURE OF UNMYELINATED NERVES
a. the blue figures represent the axons & you can see they don’t have the nice sheath wrapped around
them, but they aren’t isolated on their own
b. Schwann cell is located in the center of the picture here with unmyelinated neurons; the aren’t
wrapping around the lateral regions of the neuron. They are just thought to provide cushioning to it.
LXIII. MYELINATED VS. UNMYELINATED
a. axon w/ no myelin sheath
b. no myelin sheath present
LXIV. MYELINATED VS. UNMYELINATED
a. nervous tissue section of both a myelinated and unmyelinated neuron
b. the axon to the left has a myelin sheath, the one to the right doesn’t
[50:03 min]