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Module II
THE MAIN ELEMENTS OF MARKETING
2.1. THE SCOPE OF MARKETING
Text 1
Warm-up
1. How would you define the function of marketing?
2. In this section you will find a number of statements about the role of marketing. Read, then use them
as a basis to formulate your own definition of marketing.
3. Do you agree with Peter Drucker's definition: «The aim of marketing is to make selling superfluous»?
Vocabulary
impact on — вплив на
promotion — просування (товару на ринку)
set — набір
to affect — впливати на
superfluous — непотрібний
to obtain — отримувати
standard of living — рівень життя
1. Marketing is too important to be left to the marketing department. (David Packard)
2. In a truly great marketing organization, you can't tell who is in the marketing department. Everyone in
the organization has to make decisions based on the impact on the consumer. (Professor Stephen
Burnett)
3. Most people mistakenly think of marketing as selling and promotion... This does not mean that selling
and promotion are unimportant, but rather that they are part of a larger marketing mix, a set of marketing
tools that work together to affect the marketplace. (Philip Kotler)
4. The aim of marketing is to make selling superfluous. The aim is to know and understand the customer
so well that the product or service fits him and sells itself. (Peter Drucker)
5. Marketing is a social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need
and want through creating and exchanging products and value with others. (Philip Kotler)
6. Marketing is the performance of business activities that direct the flow of goods and services from
producer to consumer.
7. Marketing is getting the right goods and services to the right place at the right time at the right price
with the right communication and promotion.
8. Marketing is the creation and delivery of a standard of living.
Vocabulary
surplus — надлишок
shortage — недостача, нестача
merchandising — процес збуту
grading — сортування
refining — удосконалення
retail trade — роздрібна торгівля
retailer — роздрібний торговець
wholesale trade — оптова торгівля
wholesaler — оптовий торговець
prime costs of distribution — прямі витрати збуту
supplementary costs of distribution — опосередковані (непрямі) витрати збуту
scope — масштаб, сфера діяльності
the range of goods — асортимент товарів
to bring together — об'єднувати, зводити
controversy — протиріччя
added value — додаткова вартість
productive speculating — виробнича спекуляція
marketing mix — комплекс маркетингу
brand name — найменування фабричної марки
trademark — товарний знак
middleman/intermediary — посередник
to embrace — охоплювати
billboard — дошка для оголошень (афіша)
variable — змінна величина
І. The Scope of Marketing
The transfer of goods from one person to another was probably one of the earliest social acts. The basic
motive for trading is that someone has something you want more than you already have. When that
someone is willing to exchange what you want for what you already have, a mutual satisfactory
transaction can be arranged. Generally speaking, then, trade is exchange of surplus item for shortages of
items. One group or person may create a surplus of some product in the hope of profitably exchanging it
for other products.
As society and production expanded, so did the limits of trade, the range of goods, and the distance
between the traders. It became increasingly difficult for the producer to locate each other and arrange
mutually satisfactory exchanges without the help of intermediaries or «middlemen». These intermediaries,
in the role of bringing together interested parties, must perform a variety of tasks which can be called
marketing.
Marketing embraces those business activities that direct the movement of goods and services from
producers to consumers or users. This includes product planning and design, sales, sales promotion and
advertising, distribution, and pricing. Marketing, therefore, is made up of such physical activities as
transporting, distributing, storing, and selling goods, and of the decisions which must be reached by
individuals or groups who want to move goods from production to use.
There are many marketing mix variables. A product can have many different features, colors,
appearances and goods/services combinations — or it may be only a service. A package can be of
various sizes, colours or materials. Brand names and trademarks can be changed. Various advertising
media (newspapers, magazines, radio, television, billboards) may be used. A company's own sales force
or other sales specialists can be used. Different prices can be charged — and so on. It is useful to reduce
the number of variables in the marketing mix to four basic ones: product, place, promotion and price. The
four «Ps» make up a marketing mix.
Marketing trends, activities, and organizations are constantly changing and developing. In the role of
bringing together interested parties, the intermediary may also be involved in grading, financing,
assembling, packaging, refining, or altering the form of the goods. Indeed, a large portion of the working
population in many countries is involved in some form of marketing. In Germany today, for example,
manufacturing and marketing activities of retail and wholesale trade account for one-third of the national
income, while 25 % of wok force is engaged in full-time marketing activities.
The contribution of marketing to society is subject of controversy among economists. Contributions such
as refining, transporting, assembling, and packaging are considered productive speculating, storing,
accepting commissions, and merchandising activities such as advertising are considered parasitic and of
little value to society.
The general belief is that prime costs of distribution should be eliminated and supplemental cost excesses
should be reduced. Supplementary costs of distribution such as packaging, storing, and selling are
generally considered to be continuations of the production process, and are thus acceptable as an added
value to the product.
The following questions face those involved in marketing.
How should the product be designed?
How should it be packed?
What retail and/or wholesale channels should be used?
Is advertising advisable? If so, how much and what kinds?
What prices should be set?
Will it sell, and to whom?
Although marketing activities have expanded tremendously in the past 100 years, there was little formal
study of them until the past few decades. Today, there are many publications on the various aspects of
marketing and colleges give courses and degrees in this field. Marketing research has developed into a
highly specialized activity employing tens of thousands of people around the world. There is general
agreement among marketing people that, in many cases and countries, marketing activities account for
more that half the cost of the product to the consumer. In many countries, those engaged in marketing
activities outnumber those engaged in manufacturing or production.
In general, marketing directs flow of goods and services from producers to consumers or users.
Marketing is not confined to one particular type of economy; goods in all but the most primitive societies
must be marketed. Indeed, a broader concept of marketing does not limit its application to business
enterprises. Schools, hospitals, libraries, and many other services must also be marketed to be used.
Assignments
I. Answer the questions.
1. What is the motive for trading?
2. Explain why trade can be defined as «surplus items being exchanged for shortages of items»?
3. What is the role of an intermediary or «middleman» in the process of trade?
4. What are the major marketing operations?
5. Why are certain marketing functions subjects of controversy among some economists?
6. What common questions do marketing people around the world ask with regard to the goods produced
by their firms or organizations?
7. What is the share of marketing activities in the cost of goods?
8. Is the use of the term «marketing» limited to business enterprises?
//. Match the terms and definitions.
Term
Definitions
1. Retail
2. Wholesale
3. Goods
4. Barter
5. Merchandising
6. Surplus
a) Articles of trade or commerce; wares;
merchandise; products as distinguished from
services.
b) Trade or exchange of goods or services without
the use of money.
c) That amount which is greater than what is used
or needed; the opposite of shortage, a deficiency in
goods or money. Deficit, a shortage of money, can
also be an opposite.
d) The sale of goods to ultimate consumers, usually
in small quantities.
e) The sale of goods in large amount to jobbers, or
retailers, rather than directly to consumers.
f) The planning and promotion of sales through
attractive publicity.
III. Translate the following into Ukrainian:
mutually satisfactory exchanges; to bring together interested parties; national income; to be engaged in
full-time marketing activities; marketing activities account for more than half the cost of the product to the
consumer.
IV. Define the following terms in English:
goods, barter, surplus, retail, wholesale, merchandising.
V. Name the following definitions:
more than you want or need; a situation when there is not enough of the people or things that are
needed; activities done in order to increase the sale of a product or service; the activity of managing
money, especially by government or a commercial organization; a piece of business that is done between
people, especially an act of buying or selling; public discussion and argument about something that many
people strongly disagree about, disapprove of, or are shocked by; for all the hours of a week during which
people normally work or study, rather than just for a part of it.
VI. Sum up what the text says about: supplementary costs of distribution; intermediaries.
VII. Write the appropriate word or phrase in the spaces.
1. The mutually satisfying transfer of goods by exchange is called
2. An __________ or ______________ is one who helps bring
together parties interested in negotiating a trade.
3. Marketing is made up of such physical activities as___________,
_______,________and___________.
4. Marketing activities considered parasitic by some include
_________,________,__________and___________.
5. Countries where the full range of marketing activities is permitted with little government control are
called_____________economies.
VIII. Translate into English.
1. Посередники допомагають зустрічатися зацікавленим сторонам.
2. Непрямі витрати збуту, такі як: пакування, зберігання та продаж, вважаються
продовженням процесу виробництва.
3. В багатьох країнах чисельність людей, зайнятих маркетинговою діяльністю, перевищує
чисельність зайнятих у процесі виробництва.
4. Маркетингова діяльність спрямовує потік товарів та послуг від виробника до споживача.
Text 2
Warm-up
1. Translate the words and word-combinations: definition, customer, activities, objectives, flow of goods,
profit, government agencies, free of charge, at a reduced cost, executives, accounting, to charge a price,
to supply goods or services, producer, emphasis, to achieve objectives, advanced economic system,
middleman, to trade, to specialize in, buyer and seller, to increase, wholesaler and retailer.
2. What is the difference between planned and market-directed economic systems?
3.What is the role of middlemen in trading process?
Vocabulary
performance — виконання
to seek — намагатися, прагнути, домагатися
to accomplish — виконувати, здійснювати, доводити до кінця
to anticipate — передбачати
to apply to — звертатися до
government subsidy — державна субсидія
to get rid of smth. — позбавлятися чогось
disposal policy — політика збуту
to go beyond — вийти за межі
to bargain the terms — домовлятися про умови
after-sale warranty — гарантія (на придбаний товар)
to match — відповідати чомусь
to explain — пояснювати
pure subsistence — натуральне господарство
to exchange for — обмінювати(ся) на
to bargain the terms of exchange — домовлятися про умови обміну
to occur — мати місце, відбуватися
unless — якщо не
to simplify — спрощувати
transaction — угода
vice versa — навпаки
extra — понаднормовий
output — випуск (товару)
offset — компенсація; компенсувати
to reject — відхиляти
to offer — пропонувати
clumsy — незграбний, грубий, нетактовний
to take over — замінювати, взяти на себе (зобов'язання)
collection — стягання (податків тощо)
self-sufficient — самодостатній
Micro-marketing and Macro-marketing Definitions
In this text two definitions of marketing are presented: one for micro-marketing and another for macromarketing. The first looks at customers and organizations. The second one takes a broad view of the
whole production-distribution system.
Micro-marketing definition
Micro-marketing is the performance of activities which seek to accomplish an organization's objectives by
anticipating customer's or client's needs and directing a flow of need-satisfying goods and services from
producer to customer or client.
This definition applies to both profit and nonprofit organizations. Their customers or clients may be
individual consumers, business firms, nonprofit organizations, government agencies, or even foreign
nations. While most customers and clients will probably have to pay for the goods and services they
receive, others may receive them free of charge or at a reduced cost — through private or government
subsidies.
Unfortunately, many executives think that micro-marketing is only personal selling and advertising. They
feel that the job of marketing is «to get rid of» the product that has been produced and priced by the
production, accounting and finance executives. This narrow view of marketing should be rejected.
Marketing should begin with potential customer needs — not with the production process. Marketing
should try to anticipate needs. And then, marketing rather than production should determine what
products are to be made— including decisions about product development, product design, and
packaging; what prices or fee are to be charged; credit and collection policies, transporting and storing
policies; when and how the products are to be advertised and sold; and after-sale warranty, service, and
perhaps even disposal policies.
This does not mean that marketing should take over production and financial activities. Rather, it means
that marketing — by interpreting consumer's needs— should provide direction for these activities and
help to coordinate them. After all, the purpose of a business of any organization is to satisfy customer's or
client's needs. It is not to supply goods or services which are convenient to produce and which might be
sold or accepted free.
Macro-marketing definition
Macro-marketing is a social process which directs an economy's flow of goods and services from
producers to consumers in a way which effectively matches supply and demand and accomplishes the
objectives of society.
Like micro-marketing, macro-marketing is concerned with the flow of need-satisfying goods and services
from producer to consumer. When we talk about macro-marketing, however, the emphasis is not on
activities of individual organizations. Rather, the emphasis is on the whole system work.
In general, no economic system — whether planned or market directed — can achieve its objectives
without an effective macro-marketing system. To explain why this is true, we will look at marketing in
primitive economies. Then we will see how macro-marketing tends to become more and more complex in
advanced economic systems.
In a pure subsistence economy, each family unit produces all the goods that it consumes. There is no
need to exchange goods and services. Each producer-consumer unit is totally self-sufficient. Marketing
would not take place because marketing does not occur unless there are two or more parties which want
to exchange something for something else.
Almost all economies have gone beyond the pure subsistence stage. There is a need to exchange things.
The term «marketing» comes from the word «market». A market is a group of sellers and buyers
bargaining the terms of exchange for goods and services. This can be done face-to face at some physical
locations (e.g. a farmer's market) or it can be done indirectly through a complex network of middlemen
who link buyers and sellers who are far apart.
While a central meeting place would simplify exchange, the individual bartering transactions would still
take much time. Bartering requires another person who wants what you have and vice versa. Each trader
must find others who have products of about equal value. After trading with one group, a family might find
itself with some extra hats, knives, and pots. Then it would have to find other willing to trade for these
products.
A money system would change all of this. A seller would just have to find a buyer who can use his
product and agree on a price. Then he would be free to spend his money to buy whatever he wants.
This clumsy exchange process could be made much simpler by the appearance of a middleman —
someone who specializes in trade rather than production. He would be willing to buy each family's output
— and then sell each family whatever goods it needs. This middleman would charge for his service, of
course. But this charge might be more than offset by savings in time and effort.
Today, such middlemen — offering permanent trading facilities — are known as wholesalers and
retailers. The advantage of working with middlemen increases as the number and variety of competing
products increase. That is why there are so many wholesalers and retailers in modern economies.
Assignments
I. Answer the questions.
1. What does micro-marketing definition imply?
2. Is micro-marketing only personal selling and advertising?
3. What should marketing begin with?
4. What does macro-marketing emphasize?
5. What does the term «marketing» come from?
6. What is a market?
7. What are the duties of a middleman?
8. What are the advantages of working with middlemen?
II. Translate the words and word combinations into Ukrainian:
performance of activities; to seek; to accomplish; to anticipate; to apply to; government subsidies; to get
rid of smth; disposal policy; after-sale warranty; to match supply and demand; pure subsistence; to
exchange; to occur; unless; to bargain the terms of exchange; to simplify; transaction; vice versa; extra;
output; offset; wholesaler and retailer; to reject; to offer; clumsy; self-sufficient.
III. Translate into English.
1. Маркетинг необхідно починати з вивчення потреб майбутніх клієнтів, а не з виробничого
процесу.
2. Працівники маркетингового відділу не повинні брати на себе обов'язки виробничого,
бухгалтерського і фінансового підрозділів.
3. Макромаркетинг— це соціальний процес, який спрямовує економічний потік товару та послуг
від виробника до споживача таким чином, щоб ефективно співставити попит і пропозицію.
4. Ринок— це група покупців та продавців, які домовляються про умови обміну товарами та
послугами.
5. Посередником є особа, яка займається торгівлею, а не виробництвом.
IV. Name the following definitions:
someone who specializes in trade rather than production; a group of potential customers — with similar
needs — and sellers offering various products; economic system in which the individual decisions of
many producers and consumers make the macro-level decisions for the whole economy; any paid form of
non-personal presentation of ideas, goods or services by an identified sponsor; what a whole market
segment might buy; gathering and analyzing data to help marketing managers make decisions; the
performance of activities which seek to accomplish an organization's objectives by anticipating customer's
or client's needs and directing a flow of need-satisfying goods and services from producer to customer or
client; the basic forces which motivate an individual to do something; explaining what a seller guarantees
about its product.
V. Match the prepositions with the verbs:
1. to begin
a. for
2. to look
b. with
3. to pay
с over
4. to apply
5. to get rid
6. to take
7. to be concerned
8. to emphase
9. to exchange 10. to agree
d. on
e. at
f. to
g. of
e. through
VI. Copy out the sentences from the text where Passive voice is used.
VII. Questions for discussion.
1. Distinguish between macro- and micro-marketing. Then explain how they are interrelated, if they are.
2. Distinguish between how economic decisions are made in a centrally planned economy and in a
market — directed economy.
Text3
Warm-up
1. Do you agree with the following statement: «To manage a business well is to manage the future; and to
manage the future is to manage information»?
2. Many managers receive too much information. How can organizations ensure that the right information
gets to the right people at the right time?
3. Read the following overview of the market research process. As you read it, complete Tables 1 and 2.
Vocabulary
to implement — здійснювати, реалізувати
to present the findings — представляти результати
cause — причина
causal — причинний
hastily — похапцем, поспіхом
to puzzle — спантеличувати, приводити до замішання
to turn out — виявлятися
to set objectives — встановлювати цілі
exploratory — дослідницький
descriptive — описовий
primary data — первинні, основні дані
secondary data — вторинні дані versus — проти
discount retail chain store — магазин, який входить до мережі закладів , що надають знижки causeand-effect relation — зв'язок між причиною та впливом to call for — вимагати treatment — ставлення,
поводження prejudgement — попереднє обдумування, судження exposure — виставляння, викриття,
експозиція fieldwork — сфера діяльності sample — зразок, шаблон sampling plan — вибірковий,
шаблонний план relevant people — відповідні люди variables — змінні величини at random —
навмання, наздогад in terms of— стосовно, з точки зору questionnaire — анкета опитування to put
the plan into action — застосовувати план в дії to overwhelm — переповнювати, завалювати
Market Research
There are four steps in the market research process: firstly defining the problem and the research
objectives, secondly developing the research plan, then implementing the plan, and finally interpreting
and presenting the findings.
Defining the problem and research objectives is often the hardest step in the research process. The
manager may know that something is wrong, but not the specific causes. For example, managers of a
discount retail chain store hastily decided that falling sales were caused by poor advertising. When the
research showed that the current advertising was reaching the right people with the right message, the
managers were puzzled. It turned out that the stores themselves were not providing what the advertising
promised.
Market research steps
Table 1
a.
b.
When the problem has been carefully defined, the research objectives must be set. The research may be
exploratory — in order to gather information to better define the problem. It may be descriptive — in order
to describe market potential, customer attitudes, etc. Sometimes, it may be causal— to test hypotheses
about cause-and-effect relationships: for example, would a 10 per cent decrease in price lead to
significantly higher sales or not?
The second step involves developing a plan for collecting the information.
The information may be available in the form of secondary data — i.e. it already exists somewhere or it
needs to be collected specifically for this project as primary data.
Primary data collection calls for decisions about the research approaches, contact methods, sampling
plan and research instruments (see Tablet 2).
Table 2
I Research
Research
Contact
Sampling
Research
objectives
approaches
methods
plan
instruments
a.___________ a.___________ a.___________ a.___________ a.___________
b.___________ b.___________ b.___________ b.___________ b.___________
с___________ с.___________ с.___________ с.___________
There are three main research approaches: the observational approach involves gathering information by
observing relevant people, actions and situations. For example, a museum checks the popularity of
certain exhibits by noting the floor wear around them. This approach is most suited where the objective is
exploratory.
For descriptive research, surveys are best suited. These can be structured using formal lists of questions
asked of all respondents in the same way or unstructured where the interview is guided by the
respondent's answers.
Finally for causal research, an experimental approach is most effective. Experiments involve selecting
matched groups of subjects, giving them different treatments, controlling unrelated factors and checking
for differences in group responses.
As to the contact methods, information can be gathered either by mail, telephone or personal interview.
Another decision which has to be made concerns the sampling plan. A sample is a segment of the
population selected to present the population as a whole. There are three variables here: firstly the
sample unit, i.e. who is sampled? Secondly the sample size, i.e. how many should be surveyed? Thirdly
the sampling procedure, i.e. how should the people be chosen: at random, at convenience, on the basis
of prejudgement?
Finally, in developing the research plan, a choice must be made in terms of the research instruments. The
most common is the questionnaire. In preparing the questionnaire, the market researcher must decide
what question to ask, the form of the question (e.g. open/closed, multiple choice), the wording of the
questions and their ordering. Although questionnaires are the most common instrument, mechanical
instruments such as a galvanometer can be used: this instrument measures the strength of a subject's
interest or emotions aroused by and exposure to an advert or a picture.
Once all these decisions have been made concerning the research plan, the researcher must then put it
into action. The implementation phase is generally the most expensive and the most subject to error. The
fieldwork must be monitored closely to make sure the plan is correctly implemented.
The last phase is the interpretation and reporting. The researcher should try not to overwhelm managers
with statistics, but to present the major findings that are useful in the decisions faced by the management.
Assignments
I. Answer the questions.
1. In the case of a retail chain store, what should the management have done first?
2. Can you think of another example of a casual research objective?
3. Where could the researcher find secondary data such as competitor information?
4. What do you think are the advantages/disadvantages of structured versus unstructured surveys?
5. What sort of experimental research could you carry out if you wanted to find out about the relationship
between the weather and the incidence of psychological depression?
II. Translate into Ukrainian:
market research process, to implement the plan, discount retail store, poor advertising, to puzzle, to
define the problem, customer attitude, significantly, research approaches, to observe relevant people,
survey, sampling plan, at random, to put the plan into action.
III. Translate into English.
1. Виявилось, що самі магазини не забезпечували покупців товарами, які обіцяла реклама.
2. Інформація може існувати у вигляді вторинних даних — тобто, вона вже десь існує і
використовується, або ж як первинні дані — її необхідно зібрати спеціально для певного проекту.
3. Вибіркова група — це люди, які вибрані для того, щоб представляти населення в цілому.
4. Найпоширенішим засобом дослідження є анкетне опитування.
5. Після прийняття рішення стосовно плану дослідження необхідно застосувати цей план на
практиці.
IV. Name the following definitions:
to control or be in charge of a business, a team, an organization; the work of collecting information about
what people buy and why; the activity and industry of advertising things to people on television, in
newspapers, etc.; the selling of goods to the public, usually through shops; a way of dealing with
something; a number of people or things taken from a larger group and used in tests to provide
information about the group; investigation of the opinions, behaviour, etc. of a particular group of people,
which is usually done by asking them questions; closely connected with the subject you are discussing or
the situation you are thinking about; done, chosen, etc. without thinking or deciding in advance what is
going to happen.
V. Look at the following sentences taken from the text: «Who is to be sampled?»
«How many should be surveyed?» «How should these people be chosen?»
Now make questions for the following answers as part of a market research survey:
1. My name is Dorothy.
2. It's Squires, Mrs Squires.
3. Yes, I live here.
4. There are four of us. My husband, two daughters and myself.
5. No, I don't. I used to work as a nurse before the children were born.
6. He's a computer analyst.
7. He works for Halfords — a food processing group.
8. Yes, we've got two. An Audi and a Peugeot. 9.1 drive the Audi.
10. They're both at school. One's 12, the other 16.
11. We usually go to the South of France.
12. Two weeks in the summer holidays.
13. No, we drive.
14. No, not this year. We're going to visit our relatives in the States.
VI. Look at the following sentences taken from the text: «The manager may know that something is
wrong...» «Another decision which has to be made...»
Complete the following sentences with an appropriate modal verb:
1. Entrance is forbidden. You__________not enter.
2. Success is possible. We____________be successful.
3. Participation is compulsory. We________to take part.
4. Permission is given. You____________take the afternoon off.
5. Success is probable. We_____________succeed.
6. He has the ability. He___________win the competition.
7. Participation is voluntary. We___________go to the reception.
8. Failure is impossible. We__________fail.
9. It's possible to segment the market. It___________be segmented.
10. Permission is not given. You___________leave the building.
VII. Fill in the following table. Use a dictionary if necessary
Verb
Noun (concept) Noun ( agent)
Adjective
To explore
To respond
To describe
To analyse
To manage
To hypothesise
To observe
To interpret
VIII. Develop a questionnaire for the. following project.
Definition of problem and objectives
A holiday company wants to assess the potential sales of a new adventure holiday in Scotland. The
research objectives are descriptive — to describe/quantify the potential in the male adult population for a
one-week holiday involving climbing, canoeing, walking, sailing, etc.
Research plan
To carry out a survey by mail targeted at a sample of adult males between 25 and 40 years old, using a
questionnaire, testing the market for a product (specify) or service (specify). Develop a short
questionnaire (maximum 10 questions).
Text 4
Warm-up
1. Translate the following words and word-combinations: wholesaler and retailer, to treat badly, the best
way to do smth., competitors, market intermediaries, suppliers, to have an impact on, (un) fortunately.
2. Do you think the commercial world has become more competitive during the past twenty years? If so,
why?
3. Besides companies which sell similar products, what other types of competitors does an organization
face?
Vocabulary
to have impact on — мати вплив на
to grasp — усвідомити, зрозуміти
to take viewpoint — прийняти точку зору
to pop into smb's mind — приходити на думку
soft drinks — безалкогольні напої
preference — перевага
host — величезна кількість
rather than — а не, швидше за все
generic — спільний, характерний для певного виду, класу
outside-in view — погляд зі сторони
to bar — заважати, чинити перешкоду, забороняти
myopic — близькозорий
The Market Environment
Excellent companies take an outside-in view of their business. They monitor the changing environment
and continuously adapt their businesses to their best opportunities. The marketing environment
comprises the «non-controllable» actors and forces that affect a company's markets and marketing.
The major actors in a company's micro-environment are the company itself, suppliers, market
intermediaries, customers and competitors.
The company
All of the departments within a company (e.g. finance, production, human resources) have an impact on
the marketing department's plans and actions.
The suppliers
Developments in the supplier environment, such as prices and availability of raw materials, have a
substantial impact on a company's marketing operations.
The market intermediaries
Middlemen such as agents, wholesalers and retailers are powerful and important actors. In some cases
they can dictate terms and even, if treated badly, bar the manufacture from certain markets.
Customers
The marketer needs to know what people are involved in the buying decision and what role each person
plays. For many products, it is fairly easy to identify the decision-maker. Men normally choose their own
shoes and women choose their own make-up. However, other products and especially new ones may
well involve a decision-making unit of more than one person.
Competitors
A company's marketing system is surrounded by a host of competitors. The best way for a company to
grasp the full range of its competition is to take the viewpoint of a buyer for whom there exist desire
competitors (what I want to do), generic competitors (what to buy) and brand competitors ( what brand to
choose).
Unfortunately company executives tend to focus primarily on the brand competitors and on the task of
building brand preference. In fact, companies are myopic if they focus only on their brand competitors.
The real challenge is to expand their primary market (in the above case the candy market) rather than
simply fight for a larger share in a fixed-size market.
Assignments
I. Answer the question:
1. What effect could a cost-conscious finance department have on a marketing plan?
2. What effect does a supply shortage have on the launch of a new product?
3. Why do companies use wholesalers and retailers rather than supplying their customers directly?
4. What are the types of competitors? How are they differentiated?
II. Translate into Ukrainian:
suppliers, competitors, to have impact on, availability of raw materials, host of competitors, to take the
viewpoint of a buyer, to need a break, to pop into smb. minds, soft drinks, to satisfy needs, to face several
brands, to focus on, to expand the market, challenge.
III. Translate the sentences into English.
1. Головними учасниками мікрооточення компанії є сама компанія, постачальники, ринкові
посередники, клієнти та конкуренти.
2. Всі відділи компанії впливають на плани та дії відділу маркетингу.
3. Посередники такі як агенти, оптовики та роздрібники є впливовими та важливими учасники
маркетингового оточення.
4. Для того, щоб бути успішним і конкурентноздатним на ринку необхідно знати смаки та бажання
своїх клієнтів.
5. Основним завданням компанії є розширення свого основного ринку.
IV. Name the following definitions:
a process of trying to do better; a person/company who acts as an intermediate step between
manufacturer and customer; a person/company that buys goods; a person or company which provides
products or services; an area which surrounds a company (both physically and commercially); to
understand smth. completely; belonging to a type or class; a product which can be recognized by a name.
V. Look at the following sentence taken from the text:
«Companies are myopic if they focus only on their brand competitors».
Now create sentences that express universally true statements by matching statement with condition. The
first one has been done below.
Statement
1. Companies fail
2. Machines break down
3. Good employees leave
4. Product quality falls
5. Productivity rises
6. A company regresses
Condition
a. not motivated
b. no competition
с not growing
d. ignore customers' needs
e. properly maintained
f. incentive scheme exists
For example: Companies fail if they ignore customers' needs.
VI. Imagine you are developing a marketing plan for the launch of a new sports car. Use the analysis
given in the text to classify the following into the four types of competitors:
Ferrari
turbo
convertible
estate car
a luxury holiday
Jaguar
family saloon
2+2
a swimming pool
sports car
Toyota
Porsche
VII. You work in a team developing a marketing plan for launching a new flight to India. Your task is to
identify all the competitors for this project. Prepare a presentation outlining the major opportunities and
threats posed by ther competition.
Text 5
Warm-up
1. Translate the words and word-combinations: in any way, possible, to decide on, legal protection, to
possess the capacity and funds, to sell profitably, substantial, demand for, to launch a new product,
advertising costs, brand name, trademark.
2.When you are in the supermarket, do you generally buy branded products? If so, why?
3. How do you identify products? By their name, their packaging?
Vocabulary
determine — визначити appearance — зовнішній вигляд
prediction — прогноз, передбачення
skill — майстерність
ongoing process — безперервний процес
merger — злиття (двох компаній)
in part — частково at least — принаймні, о меншій мірі
unique — унікальний
modification — удосконалення, модифікація
to integrate with — об'єднувати, поєднувати
to appraise — оцінювати
surveillance — нагляд
convenience — зручність
apart from — крім
sponsorship option — спонсорський вибір
label — етикетка, ярлик
brand — фабрична марка
trade name — торгове найменування
dramatically — різко, значно
eventually — очевидно, швидше за все
to knock out — вибивати, перемагати
to save on — економити на
in the long run — врешті-решт, як наслідок
to infringe — порушувати (закон)
Product Planning
Marketing starts in a market, where individuals or organized groups who want to buy goods or services
meet people who want to sell them. The first step in marketing is to understand these groups. The
marketers must determine the number of buyers, what they want to buy, how, when and where they want
to buy it, at what price, and what they expect from it.
In part, at least, marketing determines what products and services are to be offered. Historically,
marketing experts were supposed to sell any products in any way possible. Most large companies now
produce only what their market researchers tell them will profitably sell.
All products were new at one time. Today, a product is new if it is unique — a «first» — or if it is new for
manufacturer who is entering the market, or if it has enough substantial design modifications. For the
manufacturer, merchandising includes selecting the products to be produced; deciding on the size,
appearance, form, and packaging; and «having the right goods at the right place at the right time at the
right price».
The product planners try to determine whether there will be a demand for a given product, and if so, how
much. Marketing managers then, working closely with top management, integrate these predictions with
an analysis of all the areas of the business which will be affected. Does the firm possess the capacity and
the funds to enter into the new product area? What are the existing marketing strengths, skills, and
resources? How strong is the competition? Not only may substantial investments be required to develop
and market new products, but contracts or even mergers with other firms may be necessary.
Professional marketing managers know that appraising new products and changing an existing products
line are ongoing processes. There are many motivations for constant surveillance of the product line.
Sales may be increased by offering customers more functional products, greater convenience, more
prestige, greater value, or some combination of these qualities. As a rule brand products comprise all
these characteristics.
Brand decisions are an important part of product strategy. The company must first decide: Do we develop
a brand or not? Historically, most products went unbranded. However, today branding has grown so
strong that almost everything is branded. Apart from a phase in the late 70's when there was a return to
unbranded or generic products, a brand name has become a vital part of a product's identity.
The issue of branding raises some questions. Why have branding in the first place? Who benefits from
branding? How do they benefit? What is the cost of branding?
Having decided to brand a product, the manufacturer has three sponsorship options: Do we launch it
under the manufacturer's own label? Would it be better to launch it through middlemen under a private
label? Or should we combine these two strategies and use both labels? As an example, in the fashion
industry the use of private labels has increased dramatically and some marketers predict that
middlemen's brands will eventually knock out all but the strongest manufacturer's brands.
Manufacturers who brand their products face several further choices. There are at least four brand-name
strategies:
1. They could go for an individual brand name. This policy is normally adopted in the toiletry market
where buyers are often unaware of the manufacturer's name.
2. They could go for a blanket family name for all products. This policy is followed by companies such as
Heinz and Black & Decker.
3. They could go for separate family names for product classes. For example, Beecham uses Silvikrin for
all hair shampoos.
4. They could go for the company trade name combined with the individual product name. This policy is
followed by Kellogg's (Kellogg's Corn Flakes, Kellogg's Rice Crispies).
Two of the questions which must be answered are: Does the company want to tie its name and therefore
reputation to the product's success? Do we want to save on advertising costs in the long run by
establishing a strong family name for a line of products?
Finally, we come to the actual choice of name. Most large marketing companies have developed a formal
brand name selection process. In all cases these are some of the questions which must be asked about a
proposed name.
1. Does it suggest something about product's benefit and qualities?
2. Is it easy to pronounce, recognize and remember?
3. Is it distinctive — does it stand out from its competitors?
4. Does it translate easily into other languages?
5. Can it be registered for legal protection? Brand names which infringe on existing brands or are merely
descriptive may be unprotectable.
Assignments
I. Answer the questions.
1. What is the role of marketing in relation to those who buy or use goods or services.
2. How does marketing affect product planning?
3. What was marketing's historic role?
4. What makes a product «new»?
5. What are three sponsorship options a manufacturer has after having decided to brand a product?
6. What are the advantages of a generic product name from the consumer's point of view?
7. Why do you think consumers prefer private labels rather than manufacturer's labels in the fashion
industry?
8. Why do you think Procter& Gamble have always used individual names for their household detergents
(e.g. Ariel, Tide, Dash and Bold)?
9. Do you think the Apple Macintosh is a good name for a computer? If so, why?
//. Translate into Ukrainian:
determine, to offer, to sell profitably, substantial, demand for, prediction, to possess, merger, to appraise,
ongoing process, surveillance, to enhance, apart from, to become a vital part, to benefit from, cost of
branding, to launch, to increase dramatically, to tie to, to recognize, legal protection.
111. Translate the sentences into English.
1 .Маркетологи повинні визначити потенційну кількість покупців, що вони хочуть купити, як, коли і
де вони хочуть купити товар, за якою ціною, і що покупці очікують від товару.
2. Збутова політика включає в себе вибір товарів для виробництва, вирішення питань, пов'язаних з
розмірами, зовнішнім виглядом, формою та пакуванням цих товарів.
3. Маркетологи намагаються визначити, яким буде попит на даний товар на ринку.
4. Прийнявши рішення щодо створення бренда певного товару, виробник має зробити вибір: Чи
запускати товар під своєю власною назвою? Чи було б краще запустити його через посередника?
Чи слід поєднати обидві ці стратегії і використати обидві назви?
5. Історично склалося так, що більшість товарів не мали своєї торгової марки.
IV. Give the names to the definitions:
the name given to a product by the company that it produces; the process of wrapping goods; important,
large in amount or value; the desire or need of customers for goods or services which they want to buy or
use; a statement that says what you think will happen; the act of joining two or more organizations or
businesses into one; the opinion that people have about what smb. or smth. is like, based on what has
happened in the past; the fact that you have achieved smth. that you want and have been trying to do or
get.
V. Look at the following questions taken from the text:
«Why have branding in the first place?» Who benefits from branding?»
You are trying to identify brand preference by asking shoppers questions in a supermarket. Ask about the
following using special questions.
1. Frequency of shopping visits.
2. Reason for shopping visits.
3. Person in the household who generally does the shopping.
4. Types of purchases in the supermarket.
5. Budget for weekly shop.
6. Preference for branded products.
7. Types of branded products purchased.
8. Price premium prepared to pay.
9. Knowledge of the product — name, etc. 10. Satisfaction with branded products.
VI. Match the terms with their definitions:
(brand, brand name, brand mark, trade mark, copyright.).
Definitions
1. ... is a brand or part of a brand that is given legal protection;
2. ... is the exclusive legal right to reproduce, publish or sell the matter;
3. ... is a name, term, sign, symbol, or a design or a combination of them intended to identify the goods
or services;
4. ... is that part of the brand which can be recognized but is not utterable, such as a symbol, design,
colouring or lettering;
5. ... is that part of a brand that can be vocalized — is utterable.
VII. Speak on product planning and branding.
Text 6
Warm-up
1. Translate the words and word-combinations: to introduce a new product, to fail, to make things worse,
instead of, in the long run, to reverse, sales decline, to encourage, to promote, competing products.
2. What do you think is the success rate of new products?
3. Why do you think some new products fail?
Vocabulary
average cost — середня вартість
costly (expensive) — дорогий
failure- провал, невдача
from scratch — з чистого аркуша, з початку
flurry — хвилювання, поспіх
acquisition — придбання
tricky — ризикований
to run into snags — наражатися на перепони
regulators — законодавці, контролюючі органи
price tag — ярлик з вказаною ціною, цінник
outlay — витрати, затрати
compatible — конкурентноздатний
fair play — чесна гра
to ■ ride on coattails — бути на вершині успіху завдяки впливовим зв'язкам
to entrench — укріпляти tarnish — втрачати блиск, тьмяніти
rejuvenate — відродити, відновити
to withdraw — відривати, викидати
health-conscious consumers — споживачі, які ведуть здоровий спосіб життя to
estimate — приблизно підраховувати to pursue — займатися чимось, діяти згідно з
to revive — відновлювати, відроджувати
to gobble — поїдати, швидко їсти
to blend — змішувати
to run profitably — ефективно керувати
to cough up — викласти гроші (за покупку)
to fork out — розщедритися
to eliminate — ліквідувати
to gain access to a market — отримувати доступ до ринку
to emulate — змагатися
fraction — доля, частина
to rocket — злітати
Product Development Decisions
The average cost of developing and introducing a major new product from scratch has jumped to well
over 100 million dollars. To make things worse, many of these costly new products fail (some sources
estimate that 80 per cent of all new products introduced in the United States fail). So companies are now
pursuing new product strategies that are less costly and risky than developing completely new brands.
Three new product strategies are described here: acquiring new brands, developing «me-too» products,
and reviving old brands.
Acquiring new products
Instead of building its own new products from the ground up, a company can buy another company and
its established brands. The mid-1980s saw a dramatic flurry of one big company gobbling up another.
Procter & Gamble acquired Richardson-Vicks, Thomson Electronics bought RCA, Nestle absorbed
Rowntree Mackintosh, Philip Morris obtained General Foods, and Schweppes merged with Gadbury.
Such acquisitions can be tricky — the company must be certain that the acquired products blend with its
current products and that the firm has the skills and resources needed to continue to run the acquired
brand profitably. Acqusitions can ran into snags with government regulators. For example, even under the
Reagan Administrations' loose antitrust policy, regulators did not allow Pepsi to acquire 7-Up. Finally,
such acquisitions have high price tags. Philip Morris coughed up 5.7 billion dollars for General Foods and
Nestle forked out over 2.5 billion dollars for Rowntree Mackintosh. But despite high initial outlays, buying
established brands may be cheaper in the long run than paying the enormous costs of trying to create
well-known brands from scratch.
Moreover, acquiring proven winners eliminates almost all the risks of new-products failure. Acqusitions
also provides a quick and easy way to gain access to new markets or strengthen positions in current
markets.
Developing «me-too» products
In recent years, many companies have used «me-too» products strategies — introducing imitations of
successful competing products. Thus Tandy, Sanyo, Compaq and many others produce IBM —
compatible computers. These «clones» sometimes sell for less than half the price of the IBM models they
emulate. Imitation is now fair play for products ranging from soft drinks to toiletries.
Me-too products are often quicker and less expensive to develop. The market-leader pioneers the
technology and bears most of the product development costs while the imitative product can sometimes
offer more value than the market-leading originals. Furthermore, me-too products are less costly and risky
to introduce — they enter a proven market, riding on the coattails of the market-leader.
On the other hand, a me-too strategy has some drawbacks. The imitating company enters the market late
and must battle a successful, firmly entrenched competitor.
Reviving old products
Many companies have found «new gold in the old» by reviving once-successful brands that are now dead
or dying. Many old and tarnished brand names still hold magic for consumers. Often, simply reviving,
reformulating and repositioning an old brand can give the company a successful «new» product at a
fraction of the cost of building new brands.
There are some classic examples of brand revivals. Ivory Soap reversed its sales decline in the early
1970s when it was repromoted for adult use rather than just for babies. Dannon yogurt sales rocketed as
a result of linking it to healthy living. Warner-Lambert revived Black Jack gum by playing on the nostalgia
of its 110-year old name; Coca-Cola rejuvenated Fresca by adding Nutra Sweet and real fruit juices.
Sometimes a dead product rises again with a new, as happened with one of Nestle's cookery, brands.
Some years ago Nestle withdrew a product when it failed in test market, but later revived the line under
the Lean Cuisine brand to fit with today's health-conscious consumers.
Nevertheless, there are dangers with reviving old brands. Perhaps the biggest of them is that it can
encourage marketers to look back rather than forwards.
Assignments
I. Answer the question.
1. Why do government regulators sometimes prevent an acquisition from taking place?
2. Can you think of any other examples of successful me-too products?
3. Why did Nestler relaunch their product?
II. Complete the table with your own examples.
Strategies
Examples
Advantages
Disadvantages
Acquisition
Me-toos
Revivals
III. Translate into Ukrainian:
From scratch, to fail, to acquire, to revive, to pursue, to gobble, to run profitably, to cough up, to fork out,
initial outlays, enormous costs, to gain access to a new market, to eliminate, flurry, competing products,
to emulate, to encourage, to decline, to range from soft drinks to toiletries.
IV. Translate the sentences into English:
1. Середня вартість розробки і просування нового товару на ринку зросла до понад 100 мільйонів
доларів.
2. Приблизно 80 % нових дорогих товарів зазнають поразки на ринку Сполучених Штатів.
3. Незважаючи на великі початкові витрати, купівля добре відомого бренду може бути дешевшою,
ніж сплата величезних витрат у спробі створити новий вдалий бренд з нуля.
4. Багато компаній намагаються відновити колись успішні бренди і таким чином привабити нових
покупців до своєї продукції.
5. В середині 80-х років XX століття можна було спостерігати тенденцію до злиття декількох
компаній, коли більша компанія поглинала менші.
6. Купівля добре відомого бренду — це найшвидший і найлегший шлях отримання доступу до
нових ринків або зміцнення позиції на освоєному ринку.
V. Give the names to the definitions:
an occasion when there is a lot of activity, interest, excitement, etc. within a short period of time;
something that somebody buys to add to what they already own, usually something valuable; the money
that you have to spend in order to start a new project or to save yourself money or time later; a dominant
company or product in the market; a cold drink that does not contain alcohol; the process of something
becoming or being made popular or fashionable again.
VI. Complete the boxes by choosing appropriate words/expressions from the list below:
to succeed, dead, to move into, to gobble up, to cough up, tarnished, to merge, to pay out, to strengthen
your hold, to rise again, to reverse the decline, to fork out, to rejuvenate, to absorb, to obtain, to enter, to
ride on the coattails, to rocket, to revive, to take over, dying.
Success
Old products
Market penetration
Payment
Acquisition
VII. Change the sentences into Passive Voice.
1. They are acquiring a new brand now.
2. Profits have decreased recently.
3. They are selling brand products.
4. The imitating company is gaining access to the market at present.
5. In recent years many companies have used «me-too' product strategies.
VIII. Look at the following sentences taken from the text.
«But despite high initial outlays, buying established brands may be cheaper ...»
«Moreover, acquiring proven winners eliminates almost all the risks ...»
Now select connectors from the list below to complete the sentences. (however, moreover, despite,
thus, in addition, although)
1.____________investing nearly $20 m in the project, they soon ran
out of funds.
2. ___________profits are high at the moment, we must expect a
downturn next year.
3. They acquired two US companies in 1989. ___________, they
bought several smaller European enterprises in the same year.
4. The company developed a very good me-too products._________,
they found it impossible to break into the market.
5. They developed an IBM clone and__________broke into lucrative
PC market.
6. There have been many successful revivals. _________ these
products have also saved their companies a considerable amount in product development costs.
IX. Using the words and expressions from the text, present the alternative product development strategies
for your company or a typical business.
Text 7
Warm-up
1. Translate the words and word-combinations:
to fall into, buyers intention, to satisfy personal and family needs, to seek, to be aimed at, target market,
with respect to, on a regular basis, at least, prohibited by law, brand, brand name, branding, brand mark,
trademark, trade name.
2. How do you understand the term «target market»?
Vocabulary
tangible — матеріальний
facilitating — полегшення, допомога
excitement — збудження, хвилювання
convenience products — товари повсякденного попиту
unthought products — товари, купівля яких не планується заздалегідь
specialty products — товари особливого попиту
to exert effort — докладати зусилля
to expend — витрачати
to allocate time — відводити час
substitute — замінник, субститут
to terminate — завершувати, закінчувати
product life cycle — життєвий цикл товару
maturity — зрілість
decline — спад
to maintain — підтримувати, зберігати
installation — складання, монтаж, установка
utility — користь, вигода
facilities — можливості, сприятливі умови, вигоди
appliances — електро (побутові) прилади
appeal — привабливість
legal designation — юридична назва
Product Concept
A product can be an idea, a service, a good, or any combination of these three.
This definition includes supporting services that go with goods, such as installation, guarantees, product
information, and promises of repair and maintenance. Goods are tangible and have form utility. Services
are intangible and provide facilities or direct benefits. Ideas provide psychological stimulation that helps
us solve problems or adjust to our environment.
When buyers purchase a product, they are buying the benefits and satisfaction they think the product will
provide. A sports car is purchased for excitement and fun in driving, not merely for transportation.
Products fall into one of two general categories, depending on the buyers' intentions. Products purchased
to satisfy personal and family needs are consumer products. Those bought for use in a firm's operations
or to make other products are industrial products. Consumers buy products to satisfy their personal
wants, while industrial buyers seek to satisfy the goals of their organizations.
The same thing can be both a consumer product and an industrial product. For example, an electric light
bulb is a consumer product if it is used in someone's home and an industrial product if it is purchased to
become part of another product.
Classes of products are aimed at particular target markets, and this affects distribution, promotion, and
pricing decisions.
The traditional and most widely accepted approach to classifying consumer products consists of four
categories: convenience products, shopping products, specialty products. This approach is based
primarily on characteristics of buyers' purchasing behaviour.
Convenience products are relatively inexpensive, frequently purchased items for which buyer wants to
exert only minimal purchasing effort.
Examples include bread, gasoline, newspapers, soft drinks, and chewing gum. The buyer spends little
time either in planning the purchase of a convenience item or in comparing available brands or sellers.
Shopping products are items for which buyers are willing to expend considerable effort in planning and
making the purchase. Buyers allocate considerable time for comparing stores and brands with respect to
prices, product features, qualities, services, and perhaps warranties. Appliances, furniture, men's suits,
bicycles are examples of shopping products.
Specialty products possess one or more unique characteristics, and a significant group of buyers is
willing to expand considerable purchasing effort to obtain them. Buyers plan the purchase of a specialty
products; they know exactly what they want and will not accept a substitute.
Unthought products are purchased because of a sudden problem that needs to be solved. In general,
the consumer does not think of buying these products on a regular basis.
Products are like living organisms. They are born, they live, and they die. A new product is introduced into
the market, it grows, and when it loses appeal, it is terminated. A product life cycle has four major stages:
introduction, growth, maturity and decline. By understanding the typical life cycle pattern, marketers can,
in theory at least, maintain profitable products and drop unprofitable ones.
Marketers must make many product decisions associated with branding, such as brands, brand names,
brand marks, trademarks, and trade names. A brand is a name, a term, symbol, design, or a combination
thereof that identifies a seller's products and differentiates them from competitor's products. A brand
name is a part of a brand which can be spoken — including letters, words, and numbers — such as 7UP.
A brand is often a product's only distinguishing characteristic. Without the brand name, a firm could not
identify its products. Brand names simplify shopping, guarantee quality, and allow self-expression. The
element of a brand that cannot be spoken, often a symbol or design, is called a brand mark.
A trademark is a legal designation indicating that the owner has exclusive use of a brand or a part of a
brand and that others are prohibited by law from using it. A trade name is the legal name of an
organization, such as Ford Motors Company, rather than the name of a specific product.
Assignments
I. Answer the questions.
1. What is a product?
2. What type of products are consumer ones?
3. What are industrial products?
4. What approach to classifying consumer products is the most widely
accepted?
5. How do convenience products and shopping products differ? What are the distinguishing
characteristics of each?
6. What is the product life cycle?
7. What is the difference between a brand and a brand name?
8. What is the difference between brand mark and trademark?
//. Define the following terms in English:
brand, brand name, brand mark, trademark, trade name.
III. Give the names to the following definitions:
a written promise given by a company that something you buy will be replaced or repaired without
payment if it goes wrong within a particular period; the quality of being useful; something that exists but
that is difficult to describe, understand or measure; a group of customers who will probably buy the
products of certain company; items for which buyers expend considerable effort in purchasing and
comparing stores and brands with respect to prices; products that are inexpensive, for which buyers want
to exert minimal purchasing effort but are very important for every day life; goods that are bought because
of a sudden problem that needs to be solved; a quality that makes somebody or something attractive and
interesting; a part of a brand which can be spoken; goods that demand a lot of purchasing effort and
buyers know exactly what they want and will not accept a substitute; a legal designation indicating that
the owner has an exclusive right to use a brand or a part of a brand and that others are prohibited by law
from using it.
IV. Translate the following words and word-combinations into English: полегшувати; товари особливого
попиту; збудження (хвилювання); відводити час; товари купівля яких не планується
заздалегідь; надання товару торгової марки; життєвий цикл товару; символ марки; товарний знак;
торгове найменування; завершувати (закінчувати).
V. Translate the sentences into English.-.
1. Споживачі докладають мінімальні зусилля на купівлю товарів
повсякденного попиту.
2. Купівля товарів особливого попиту вимагає значних зусиль зі
сторони споживачів.
3. Товарний знак — це юридичне маркування, яке вказує на те, що його власник має виключне
право на використання фабричної марки, і що іншим особам забороняється законом використовувати її.
4. Фабрична марка служить для ідентифікації товарів продавця та відрізняє їх від товарів
конкурентів.
VI. Change the sentences into Passive Voice.
1. When buyers purchase a product, they actually are buying the benefits.
2. Consumers buy products to satisfy their personal needs.
3. Buyers allocate considerable time for comparing stores and brands.
4. Buyers plan the purchase of a specialty product.
5. Brand names simplify shopping.