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AP EXAM
STUDY GUIDE
CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
Define the following. You should be able to identify examples of each.
1) Element
2) Atom
3) Ion
4) Molecule
5) Compound
6) Solution
7) Solvent
8) Solute
9) Concentration
10) Isomer
11) Define structural isomers.
12) Define geometric isomers.
13) Define enantiomers.
List the 3 particles of an atom. List the charge and location of each.
Describe each of the following bonds.
1) Ionic Bond
2) Covalent Bond
3) Peptide Bond
4) Hydrogen Bond
What is the Law of Conservation of Matter?
Equations
1)
2)
3)
4)
Where are the reactants written?
Where are the products written?
Which direction does the arrow point?
What is a balanced equation?
What determines if a molecule is organic or not?
Carbon
1) How many bonds can Carbon form?
2) What makes carbon ideal as the centerpiece of organic molecules?
3) What is a hydrocarbon?
Draw and name the functional groups.
Define the following:
1) Monomer
2) Polymer
3) Macromolecule
Carbohydrates
1) What elements?
2) What is/are the function(s)?
3) What is the monomer?
4) List 3 examples.
5) What is a disaccharide?
6) List 3 examples.
7) What is a polysaccharide?
8) List 4 examples.
Lipids
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Proteins
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
What elements?
What is/are the function(s)?
What are its two parts?
What is the difference between a saturated and unsaturated fat?
Why are fats important for animals?
Explain how phospholipids arrange themselves.
What important role do phospholipids serve to organisms?
What elements?
What is/are the functional categories of proteins?
What is the monomer?
How many common amino acids are there?
Draw two different amino acids. For each, circle the alpha carbon and
hydrogen, draw a triangle around the amino group, draw a rectangle around
the carboxyl group and circle the R group with a red pencil.
6) Discuss the 4 levels of protein structure and how there are important to the
organism.
7) Define enzyme.
8) What does an enzyme do to the rate of a reaction?
9) How does an enzyme work?
10) What are the molecules that bind to the enzyme?
11) What term describes the area on the enzyme to which the substrate binds?
12) Can one enzyme catalyze more than one chemical reaction?
13) What happens when an enzyme becomes “denatured?”
14) What conditions would result in denaturation of an enzyme?
15) What (if any) is the effect of each of the following on the rate of a reaction
that uses an enzyme (Fill this portion in after watching presentations)?
 Increased substrate concentration.
 Decreased substrate concentration.
 Increased enzyme concentration.
 Decreased enzyme concentration.
 Increased temperature.
 Decreased temperature.
 Increase in pH.
 Decrease in pH.
Nucleic Acids
1) What elements?
2) What are the two types of nucleic acids?
3) What is the monomer?
4) What are the 3 parts of a nucleotide?
5) What does DNA do?
6) What does RNA do?
Reactions
1) Define dehydration synthesis.
2) Define hydrolysis.
3) Show how dehydration synthesis would occur to form a disaccharide.
CELLS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Microscopes
o Types of
o Part of Light Microscope and Functions

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic
o Similarities
o Differences

Organelles
o Structure
o Function
o How they work together

Plant vs. Animal
o Similarities
o Differences

Cell Surfaces and Junctions
o Cell Wall
o Extracellular Matrix
o Intercellular Junctions

Structure of Cell Membrane
o Fluid Mosaic Model
o Components and their functions

Passive Transport
o Things that are always true
o Diffusion
o Facilitated Diffusion
o Osmosis

Active Transport
o Things that are always true
o Ion Pumps
o Cotransport
o Exocytosis
o Endocytosis
CELL DIVISION
1. List the reasons for cell division.
2. Define the following terms:
a. Genome
b. Chromosome
c. Gamete
d. Somatic cell
e. Chromatin
f. Sister chromatids
g. Centromere
3. Describe the genetic material of prokaryotic cells.
4. Describe division of prokaryotic cells.
5. Why is cell division in eukaryotic cells more complicated than prokaryotic cells?
6. List the 5 parts of the cell cycle.
7. In which does the cell spend most of its time?
8. What factors determine the amount of time taken for the cell cycle to occur?
9. Define mitosis.
10. Describe the events of the first gap phase. Sketch the cell during this phase.
11. Describe the events of the synthesis phase. Sketch the cell during this phase.
12. Describe the events of the second gap phase. Sketch the cell during this phase.
13. Describe the events of prophase. Sketch the cell during this phase.
14. Describe the events of prometaphase. Sketch the cell during this phase.
15. Describe the events of metaphase. Sketch the cell during this phase.
16. Describe the events of anaphase. Sketch the cell during this phase.
17. Describe the events of telophase. Sketch the cell during this phase.
18. Describe the events of cytokinesis. Sketch the cell during this phase.
19. Compare cytokinesis in plants and animals.
20. Contrast cytokinesis in plants and animals.
21. What factors stop cell growth?
a.
b.
c.
22. Describe the controls over the cell cycle.
a.
b.
c.
23. What term describes the G1 checkpoint?
24. Define kinase.
25. What is a cyclin?
26. What is MPF? What does it do?
27. Describe the levels of cyclin and MPF throughout the stages of the cell cycle.
28. In what ways are cancerous cells different from normal cells?
29. Define transformation.
30. Distinguish between a benign and malignant tumor.
31. Define metastasis.
32. Define the following terms:
a. Heredity
b. Variation
c. Genetics
d. Gene
e. Homologous chromosomes
f. Autosomes
g. Sex chromosomes
h. Haploid cell
i. Diploid cell
33. Compare sexual and asexual reproduction.
34. Contrast sexual and asexual reproduction.
35. Sketch the general life cycle of most animals.
36. Sketch the general life cycle of fungi and some protists.
37. Sketch the general life cycle of plants and some algae.
38. Define meiosis.
39. When does chromosomes replication occur during sexual reproduction?
40. Describe the events of prophase I.
41. Describe the events of metaphase I.
42. Describe the events of anaphase I.
43. Describe the events of telophase I.
44. Describe the events of prophase II.
45. Describe the events of metaphase II.
46. Describe the events of anaphase II.
47. Describe the events of telophase II.
Mitosis
Meiosis
Number of Cells @ Start
Number of Cells @ End
Number of Parents
Chromosomes number of
daughter cells
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
48. Describe 3 ways that sexual reproduction leads to increased genetic variation.
49. Explain the evolutionary significance of genetic variation.
50. What is the trade-off between asexually and sexually reproducing species?
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Distinguish between autotrophs and heterotrohps.
2. Distinguish between chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs.
3. Sketch a cross-section of the leaf of a photosynthetic plant. Label all parts and list
the function of each.
4. Sketch a chloroplast and label its parts.
5. What is the net reaction for photosynthesis?
6. Is photosyntheis endergonic or exergonic? Where does the energy come from?
7. Describe the reduction component of photosynthesis.
8. Describe the oxidation component of photosynthesis.
9. Explain photosynthesis as a redox process.
10. Write an equation for the light reactions?
11. Write an equation for the dark reactions?
12. Define photophosphorylation. Does this occur in the light or dark reactions?
13. Define carbon fixation. Does this occur in the light or dark reactions?
14. What distinguishes visible light from infrared or ultraviolet light?
15. What kind of light powers photosynthesis?
16. Describe the relationship between absorption and reflection by a pigment.
17. List and describe the 3 major groups of photosynthetic pigments.
18. List and describe the components of a Photosystem.
19. Describe the 2 photosystems in the thylakoid membrane. How do they differ?
Light Reactions
20. Describe the sequence of events in non-cyclic electron flow. Be very detailed.
Make a sketch as well.
21. Describe the sequence of events in cyclic electron flow. Be very detailed. Make
a sketch as well.
22. When would cyclic electron flow occur?
Dark Reactions
23. What other terms are used in place of dark reactions?
24. Describe the sequence of events in the dark reactions? Be very detailed. Make a
sketch of the cycle as well.
Alternative Methods
25. Describe the problems associated with C3 plants. Include photorespiration in
your discussion.
26. Describe the alternative method used by C4 plants in detail.
27. Describe the alternative method used by CAM plants in detail.
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
1. Describe catabolic pathways. Give 2 examples in humans.
2. Explain how ATP does work in a cell.
3. Explain redox reactions. Be familiar with terms: oxidation, reduction, oxidizing
agent, and reducing agent.
4. Describe how a redox reaction can be exergonic.
5. Describe respiration as a redox process.
6. Describe the exergonic flow of electrons during respiration.
7. Describe the structure of a mitochondrion and how that structure helps cells be
efficient at respiration.
8. Write the net equation for cellular respiration. Explain where each of the
reactants comes from and during which processes each of the products are made.
9. Glycolysis
a. Location in cell
b. Equation
c. Enzymes
i. Phosphofructokinase as glycolysis-regulating enzyme.
d. Energy Investment vs. Energy Payoff
e. Overall Products
f. Need for glycolysis before Krebs
g. Need for glycolysis during anaerobic respiration
10. Junction
a. Location in cell
b. Conditions under which this occurs
c. Why is coenzyme A attached to acetate for movement into matrix?
d. Equation
i. Products per pyruvate
ii. Products per glucose
11. Krebs
a.
b.
c.
d.
Location in cell
Explain how Krebs is cyclic.
Enzymes
Equation
i. Products per Acetyl CoA
ii. Products per glucose & destination of each
12. Electron Transport Chain
a. What is the electron transport chain and where is it located?
b. Identify the origin of electrons in the electron tranport chain.
c. Explain the exergonic movement of electrons during the ETC.
d. What work is done with the energy that is given off by electrons? Be able
to describe chemiosmosis.
e. Explain why oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor.
f. Describe the formation of water during respiration.
g. Describe oxidative phosphorylation. What is the importance of ATP
synthase in this process?
h. Products per NADH.
i. Products per FADH2.
j. Products per glucose.
13. Explain the efficiency, or lack thereof, of the process of respiration.
14. Explain how respiration and photosynthesis are related.
15. Anaerobic respiration.
a. 2 types and examples of where each are used
b. glycolysis + fermentation
i. reactants and products of each
ii. how they work together.
c. Why would organisms undergo this type of respiration?
16. Explain the difficulty of evolution for organisms in the absence of oxygen.
17. What was the principal idea in the first respiration lab (with Phenol Red)?
18. What was the principal idea in the second respiration lab (with respirometers)?
HEREDITY
1. Mendel’s Research and Laws
2. Define
a. Genotype
b. Phenotype
c. Homozygous
d. Heterozygous
3. Complete Monohybrid Cross and provide ratios & probabilities
4. Complete Dihybrid Cross and provide ratios & probabilities
5. Use Rule of Multiplication and Addition to do Crosses with more than 2 traits.
6. Describe
a. Incomplete Dominance
b. Codominace
c. Multiple Alleles
d. Pleiotropy
e. Epistasis
f. Polygenic Inheritance
g. Environmental Impacts
7. Pedigrees – make, read, and interpret]
8. Examples of Diseases
a. Recessive
b. Dominant
c. Multifactorial
MOLECULAR GENETICS
1. Morgan – experiments and conclusions
2. Linked Genes
a. Genetic Mapping
b. Recombination Frequencies
3. Sex Determination Systems
4. Sex-Linked Disorders – solve crosses and provide ratios & probabilities
5. Effect of X chromosome inactivation
6. Blood Type – solve crosses, provide ratios & probabilities, understand donation
7. Understand how nondisjunction can lead to number disorders
8. Understand alterations on chromosome structure and how they may cause genetic
disorders
9. Be familiar with the idea of gene imprinting (can identify if came from mom or
dad)
10. Discovery that DNA is genetic material
a. Morgan
b. Griffith – 1st transformation
c. Avery, MacLeod & McCarty
d. Hershey & Chase
e. Other Supports
11. Discovery of DNA’s structure
a. Chargaff
b. Franklin
c. Watson
d. Crick
12. DNA Structure
a. Nucleic Acid
b. Nucleotides
c. Antiparallel
d. Base Pairing
13. Steps of Semiconservative DNA Replication & Enzymes Used
14. DNA Repair Mechanisms
15. Telomerase Action
16. Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic DNA
17. One Gene = One Enzyme Hypothesis
18. DNA/RNA – compare and contrast
19. Transcription
a. Location
b. Process & Enzymes
i. Initiation
ii. Elongation
iii. Termination
iv. RNA Processing (pre-RNA  mRNA)
1. Poly AAA tail
2. 5’ cap
3. Splicing (introns vs. exons)
20. Translation
a. tRNA (how converted to aminoacyl tRNA synthetase)
b. Ribosome Structure & Function (APE sites)
c. Process & Enzymes or other molecules of importance
i. Initiation
ii. Elongation
iii. Termination
d. Polypeptide  Protein
21. Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote Translation
22. Mutations
a. Types of
i. Missense vs. Nonsense
ii. Point vs. Large Scale and Types of Each
b. Causes of
VIRUSES AND BACTERIA
1. Discovery of Viruses
2. Viral Structure
3. Viral Reproduction
a. Lytic Cycle & Steps
b. Lysogenic Cycle & Steps
4. Uniqueness of Animal Viruses
a. Uniqueness of
b. Retroviruses
c. Prevention
d. Viruses as cause of cancer
e. How new viruses emerge
5. Viroids
6. Prions
7. Viruses evolved from plasmids or transposons – explain
8. How bacteria adapt
a. Mutation
b. Transformation
c. Transduction
d. Conjugation
9. Plasmid
a. F
b. R
10. Transposons
a. Replicative vs. Cut & Paste
b. Insertion Sequence vs. Composite
11. Controls over Gene Expression in Bacteria
a. Repressible Operon (trp)
b. Inducible Operon (lac)
EUKARYOTIC GENOMES
1. Levels of DNA Packing
2. Repetitive DNA
3. Gene Families
4. Pseudogenes
5. Genome Change During Life
a. Gene Amplication
b. Gene Loss
c. Rearrangements (transposons, retrotransposons, immune system)
6. Control over Gene Expression in Eukaryotic Organisms
a. Chromatin Modifications (methylation, acetylation, deacetylation)
b. Controls Over Transcription (repressors, transcription factors, control
elements)
c. Post Transcription Control (alternative splicing, mRNA degradation,
protein processing & degradation, attachment of ribosome)
7. Cancer
a. Onco vs. Proto-oncogenes
b. Ras
c. P53
DNA TECHNOLOGY
1. Recombinant DNA & How its made (restriction enzymes, sticky ends, etc)
2. Cloning
a. General Process
b. Problems with Use of Bacteria to Clone Eukaryotic Genes
c. Gene Library
3. PCR
4. Gel Electrophoresis & RFLPs
5. Human Genome Project
6. Nucleic Acid Probes
7. Possible Uses of DNA Tech
EVOLUTION
1. Scientists’ Contribution – Linnaeus, Cuvier, Hutton, Lyell, Lamarck
2. Darwin
a. Studies
b. Book
c. Theory
3. Natural Selection & Process – also be able to apply
4. Evidence – ALL ALIGN TO FORM SAME TREE OF LIFE
a. Anatomical
b. Embryological
c. Biogeographical
d. Molecular
e. Fossils
5. Population is smallest unit that can evolve
6. Hardy-Weinberg
a. What it applies to
b. Use
c. Equations
7. Microevolution
a. Genetic Drift
i. Define
ii. When has greatest effect (examples of when might occur)
b. Natural Selection
c. Gene Flow
d. Mutation
e. Sexual Selection
8. Variation
a. Ways to Create (Mutation & Sexual Reproduction)
b. Ways to Preserve (Diploidy, Balanced Polymorphism, Neutral Variation)
9. Fitness
10. Adaptive Evolution
a. Selection Trends
b. Maintenance of Sex
c. Sexual Selection
11. Limits of Natural Selection & Evolution Not Goal
12. Macroevolution
13. Speciation
a. Allopatric vs. Sympatric
14. Species Concepts
15. Species Barriers
a. Prezygotic & Examples
b. Postzygotic & Examples
16. Tempo - Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium
17. Significance of genes that control development to Macroevolution
18. Fossils
a. How used
b. Why so incomplete
19. 2 importance geologic events to evolutionary history
20. Impact of mass extinctions
21. Linnaean system of taxonomy
22. Phylogenetic Tree
a. Factors taken into account
b. How contructed
23. Homologies vs. Analogies
24. Molecular Clock
CLASSIFICATION
I.
Domains Archaea & Bacteria
a. Similarities
b. Differences
BODY SYSTEMS
I.
Digestion
a. Energy Source
b. Insulin/Glucogen
II.
Thermoregulation
a. Thermoregulator vs. Thermoconformer
b. Heat Exchange
c. Hypothalamus as thermostat
d. Reactions by:
i. Birds & Mammals
ii. Reptiles & Amphibians
iii. Terrestrial Invertebrates
iv. Fish
e. Acclimatization mechanisms
f. Torpor
III.
IV.
V.
Immune System
Endocrine System
Nervous System
ECOLOGY
1. Define the following terms.
a. Population
b. Community
c. Ecosystem
d. Biosphere
e. Ecology
2. Describe dispersal and how it affects distribution.
3. How may behavior affect distribution?
4. List, separately, biotic and abiotc factors that may affect distribution.
5. What is the driving force of global climate?
6. Which 2 pieces of climate seem to have the greatest effect on distribution?
7. How does proximity to a lake affect local climate?
8. Describe the climate difference between sides of a mountain.
9. Define microclimate and give an example.
10. Define the following aquatic zones. What type of plants and animals would exist
in each?
a. Photic Zone
b. Profundal Zone
c. Littoral Zone
d. Limnetic Zone
e. Benthic Zone
11. Distinguish between oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes. Include information on
penetration of sunlight, amount of nutrients, amount of phytoplankton, clarity of
water, affects on animal life.
12. Distinguish between and give examples of proximate and ultimate causes of
animal behavior.
13. Define ethology.
14. Define Fixed Action Pattern and Sign Stimulus. Describe that which Tinbergen
observed.
15. Explain the Optimal Foraging Theory.
16. Define learning and different types, including habituation, imprinting, and
associative learning.
17. Which type of animals are most cognitive?
18. Explain the following cognition/movement:
a. Kinesis
b. Taxis
c. Landmarks
d. Cognitive Map
19. Describe piloting, orientation, and navigation as used for migration.
20. Describe competitive social interactions:
a. Agnostic behavior
b. Reconciliation behavior
c. Dominance hierarchy
d. Territoriality
21. Explain behaviors of mating and courtship and how/why they may have evolved.
What trade-offs are associated with different mating systems?
22. Explain altruism and the idea of inclusive fitness.
23. Describe 3 ways to estimate population density. In what situation would each
work best?
24. Describe 3 distribution patterns. In what situation would each be most likely?
25. explain how life tables, survivorship curves, and reproductive tables are used in
the study of demography.
26. Explain two types of reproduction. What is the trade-off?
27. What are the two main factors that determine growth rate? What other two
factors are influences as well?
28. Describe exponential growth, logistic growth, and boom and bust populations.
29. Distinguish between density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors.
30. What is the difference between species richness and relative abundance?
31. Describe competition and the 3 possible results.
32. Describe predation. Include adaptations of predators and prey.
33. Describe cryptic coloring and mimicry as modes of defense.
34. Describe and give examples of 3 types of symbiosis.
35. Explain trophic structure and the pyramids of energy, biomass, and numbers.
36. How do the “Law of Conservation of Energy” and the “Law of Conservation of
Matter” fit in with this idea of energy and biomass loss?
37. Why is food chain length limited (2 theories)?
38. Describe the effects of dominant and keystone species on an ecosystem.
39. Compare and contrast top-down and bottom-up control.
40. Explain the “balance of nature” and “nonequilibrium” models of community
structure.
41. Describe primary and secondary succession.
42. What factors affect biodiversity?
43. Explain primary production. Why is this important to an ecosystem?
44. What is the difference between gross and net production?
45. What limits primary production in an aquatic environment?
46. What limits primary production in a terrestrial environment?
47. What is a limiting nutrient?
48. What is secondary production?
49. What happens with consumed energy?
50. Explain the green world hypothesis.
51. Be able to describe how the following move through ecosystems:
a. Water
b. Carbon/Oxygen
c. Nitrogen
d. Phosphorus
52. Describe the effects of humans on the biosphere (agriculture, burning fossil fuels,
toxins, clearing land, ozone).
53. Describe the 3 levels of biodiversity:
a. Genetic diversity
b. Species diversity
c. Ecosystem diversity
54. Describe why biodiversity needs to be conserved.
55. Describe how each of the following threatens biodiversity:
a. Habitat Destruction
b. Introduced Species
c. Overexploitation
d. Food Chain Disruptions
56. Explain restoration efforts and what must be done for them to be effective.