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CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS FOUNDATION
Bill of Right in Action
Fall 1992 (8:4)
This Bill of Rights in Action examines issues related to elections and
political
leadership this article explores how the Roman Republic set up dictators
from time
to time to solve political problems.
Democracy and Dictatorship in Ancient Rome
Brutus: Was the crown offered him thrice?
Casca: Ay, marry, was't, and he put it by thrice, every time gentler than [the]
other. . . .
—Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Act I Scene II
In 509 B.C., the Romans threw out their king. At the time, Rome already had a
citizen
assembly. To replace the king, the assembly elected two men called consuls who
would
govern together for one year. Both consuls had to cooperate in order for the
government
to act.
It was mainly the patricians, the wealthy landowning nobles, who got to vote. As
a result,
the consuls in the early years of the Republic were always patricians. Later,
however, at
least one consul had to come from the plebeian class, the commoners.
Before the Republic, the king had been advised by a Senate. Once the monarchy
was
gone, the Senate took on more power and ruled Rome alongside the two
consuls. On the
surface, the consuls seemed to hold more power than senators, but they held
office for
only a year while the senators served for life.
Dictatorship
The founders of the Roman Republic, like the American founding fathers, placed
checks
and balances on the power of their leaders. The Romans, however, came up with
a way to
sidestep these checks and balances when strong leadership was needed, such
as a time of
crisis. The Senate could vote to grant absolute power to one man, called a
dictator, for a
temporary period.
During the first 300 years of the Republic, dictators were often called on when
Rome
faced an invasion or some internal danger. Unlike the dictators of the 20th
century—such
as Adolf Hitler in Germany or Augusto Pinochet in Chile—the dictatorship was
limited
to six months or even less if the crisis passed. If a dictator refused to step down,
he could
be forcibly removed.
The Roman dictator's power was absolute. He could rule by decree. He could
even order
executions without a trial. For centuries, Roman dictators served when duty
called and
gave up power when their terms ended.
But in 82 B.C., a general named Cornelius Sulla seized control of Rome. Sulla's
dictatorship was not like those of the past. He bypassed the Senate, which was
filled with
his enemies, and convinced the citizens' assembly to make him a permanent
dictator.
Sulla then banished or killed hundreds of his opponents.
Sulla became what the ancient Greeks called a tyrant, a man who seizes
personal control
with military power. When he traveled in public, Sulla was always preceded by 24
guards. Each guard carried an ax bound by a bundle of rods called fasces. This
is the
origin of the word fascism—the word the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini used to
describe his political movement in the early 20th century.
After more than three years of tyranny, Sulla suddenly resigned. For the next 30
years,
the Roman Republic stumbled along, sometimes in near anarchy. Spartacus led
a massive
slave revolt that almost brought down the Republic. During all this turmoil, new
feuds
and factions emerged. This would be the last generation of the Roman Republic.
The Dictatorship of Julius Caesar
By 53 B.C., factions in the Senate had paralyzed the Roman government. The
annual
consul election degenerated into a contest of who could bribe the most voters.
Street riots
erupted. In a desperate move to restore order, the assembly elected General
Gnaeus
Pompey to serve as sole consul for a year. Informally, Pompey shared power
with two
other powerful generals—Julius Caesar and Marcus Crassus. Crassus was the
general
who had defeated Spartacus. And Caesar was the governor and military
conqueror of
Gaul. This military committee became known as the First Triumvirate.
Caesar used his money and influence to put supporters like Mark Antony into key
positions. Caesar's many enemies in Rome spread rumors that he planned to
take power.
In 49 B.C.E., Caesar did mass his legions at the border between Gaul and Italy.
Foes of
Caesar spread the word that Caesar was about to invade Italy with his army. The
consul
Marcellus declared Pompey the defender of the city.
The Senate demanded that Caesar give up his provincial command. Caesar
answered by
leading his army across the Rubicon River into Italy. This "crossing of the
Rubicon" was
an act of war, since a Roman general was forbidden to lead an army outside the
province
he governed. Pompey and most of the senators fled the country.
Unlike Sulla, Caesar did not butcher his opponents. He attempted to form
alliances with
them, and he had himself elected consul. Caesar then took his army in pursuit of
Pompey
and defeated him in Africa. After staying for some time with Cleopatra in Egypt,
Caesar
returned to Rome.
By 45 B.C., Caesar had defeated all the troops loyal to Pompey. The Senate
acclaimed
him "Liberator" and made him dictator for 10 years. Caesar distributed bonuses
to his
troops, gave money to every citizen, and pardoned his enemies.
During the five years of his rule, Caesar decreed many reforms such as a new
calendar
and relief for debtors. In return, the Roman people heaped honors on him. One of
the
Roman months was renamed Julius, our July. Statues of Caesar were raised in
different
parts of the city. His image appeared on coins. Then, in February 44 B.C.,
Caesar was
made dictator for life.
According to tradition, Mark Antony publicly offered a king's crown to Caesar,
who
refused it three times. As king, Caesar would no longer need the Senate or even
the
Roman citizens to stay in power. It is difficult to know if his refusal was sincere
because
he was assassinated only a few days later.
Caesar's death plunged Rome into 17 years of civil war. The warfare finally
ended when
Octavian, Caesar's adopted son, became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire.
Although
the forms of the Republic such as the Senate and the election of the consuls
continued,
the emperor held all power. Democracy in Rome was dead and dictatorship had
won.
Answer the following questions
1. How did the Roman Republic attempt to limit the power of its political leaders?
Why did the Romans do this?
2. Do you think Caesar should have accepted the crown of a king? Why or why
not?
3. After the bloody attack on Caesar, one of the characters in Shakespeare's
Julius
Caesar shouts, "Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead!" Do you agree or disagree
with
these words? Explain.
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