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Name: _________________________________________________ Date: ______________ Block: ____ A.1 Basic Biological Principles Characteristics of all living organisms: – are made of cells – obtain and use energy – grow and develop – reproduce on their own – respond to their environment – adapt to their environment All cells have ribosomes, cytoplasm, plasma membranes, and genetic material (DNA) All life is divided into two groups of cells – prokaryotes and eukaryotes Prokaryotes Example: bacteria No nucleus No membrane-bound organelles Eukaryotes Example: animals, fungi, protists, and plants Have nucleus Have membrane-bound organelles (like mitochondria, rough ER, and Golgi apparatus) On earth for 1 billion years Typically larger cells On earth for 3.5 billion years Typically smaller cells Important Organelles and their functions: – Ribosome – makes proteins – Rough ER – transports proteins – Golgi Apparatus – modifies, processes, and packages proteins into vesicles (sacs) for delivery – Nucleus – contains genetic material (DNA) – Mitochondria – makes energy (ATP); does respiration – Chloroplast – makes food (sugar); does photosynthesis – Lysosome – breaks down materials Organizational levels from smallest to largest – organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism 1 A.2 The Chemical Basis for Life Water important to life on earth – Water molecules stick to each other (cohesion) and other molecules (adhesion) – Water changes its temperature slowly (has high specific heat) – Ice is less dense than water – Water is the universal solvent Carbon makes 4 covalent bonds so a wide variety of molecules are possible. Small monomers (building blocks) are joined together to make large polymers. Large molecules = macromolecules: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts. Catalysts speed up chemical reactions. They do this by lowering activation energy. Activation energy is the energy required to start a chemical reaction. Enzymes work on molecules called substrates. Substrates can have something added or be broken down by enzymes. Example: The enzyme lactase breaks down the sugar called lactose. The temperature, pH, and concentration levels of substrate and enzyme can all affect enzyme activity. Each enzyme has a particular pH and temperature range where they work best (optimal). Example: Pepsin (an enzyme in your stomach) works best at an acidic pH of 2. Most of your enzymes work best at 98.6°F. High temperature or high or low pH changes the shape of an enzyme which means it cannot do its job. Characteristics Monomer (building blocks) Carbohydrates Proteins Nucleic acids Lipids sugar amino acids nucleotides none Uses provide energy building materials, fight disease, transport materials genetic material provide insulation and protection, storage of energy hemoglobin DNA, RNA, ATP fats, fatty acids Examples glucose, starch, cellulose glucose amino acid fatty acid Important Structures 2 A.3 Bioenergetics Photosynthesis: sunlight + 6H2O + 6CO2 C6H12O2 + 6O2 – Converts light energy into chemical energy (sugar) – Uses sunlight, H2O, and CO2 – Makes glucose (sugar) and O2 – Occurs in chloroplasts – Plants, algae, and some bacteria do photosynthesis Cellular Respiration: C6H12O2 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2 + ATP (energy) – Converts chemical energy (from glucose) into a different chemical energy (ATP) – Uses glucose (sugar) and O2 – Makes CO2, H2O, and energy (ATP) – Occurs in mitochondria – All living things do some type of respiration because all living things need to make energy. ATP is adenosine triphosphate (has 3 phosphates). This is the major energy source for your cells. – ATP can chop off a phosphate, which releases energy and makes ADP. – ATP ADP + Phosphate + Energy ADP is adenosine diphosphate (has 2 phosphates). – ADP can add a phosphate, which requires energy and makes ATP. – ADP + Phosphate + Energy ATP ATP is like a fully charge battery. ADP is like a partially charge battery. 3 A.4 Homeostasis and Transport Plasma membrane is the protective barrier around all cells. – Plasma membrane is made primarily of phospholipids. It also has proteins. – Phospholipids have hydrophobic phosphates and hydrophilic fatty acids. Types of transport – Passive transport – no energy required Diffusion – moves molecules from high to low concentration Molecules diffuse based on size and temperature. In this diagram the larger molecules cannot diffuse, but the smaller ones diffuse out of the bag. Osmosis – moves water from high to low concentration Water moving into or out of a cell can cause the cell to burst, swell, or shrivel. Facilitated diffusion – moves materials through a protein from high to low concentration – Active Transport – requires energy Active transport moves molecules from low to high concentration Protein pumps help to move materials via active transport. – Miscellaneous Endocytosis – membrane wraps around and engulfs materials and puts them in a vesicle Exocytosis – vesicles on inside of cell fuse with membrane and materials are released to outside Membrane-bound organelles help transport materials inside cells. o Rough Endoplamsic Reticulum (rough ER) transports proteins o Golgi apparatus packages materials in vesicles (sacs) to be delivered all over cell (like the post office). Organisms must regulate different things in their bodies like temperature, pH, water, oxygen. o Examples: Freshwater fish gain water by osmosis so they must produce watery urine to get rid oe excess. Saltwater fish lose water by osmosis so they must produce concentrated urine to get rid of salt (saving water). People sweat and dogs pant to reduce body temperature. 4 B.1 Cell Growth and Reproduction Cells divide to make more cells. Cell Cycle: o Interphase G1 – cells grows S – copies DNA G2 – cell continues to grow o Nuclear Division – either mitosis or meiosis o Cytokinesis – finish cell division; pinching in of cell membrane (cleavage) Mitosis – Makes 2 body cells (diploid) – Chromosome number stays the same (cloning) – Humans make 2 cells with 46 chromosomes. Meiosis – Makes 4 sex cells (gametes – sperm or eggs - haploid) – Chromosome number is halved – Humans make sex cells with 23 chromosomes. DNA is a double helix made of sugar, phosphate, and bases. The order of the bases (A, T, C, and G) makes the genetic code and makes different genes. 5 DNA is copied (replicated) before a cell divides (mitosis or meiosis). Your DNA is the molecule that makes up chromosomes. One strand of DNA is a chromosome. Each chromosome has many genes (sections of the DNA that make a protein). A gene can come in different forms or alleles (ex. recessive and dominant). 6 B.2 Genetics A gene makes a protein through transcription and translation. – DNA: TAC AAA TTC ATT – mRNA: AUG UUU AAG UAA – Protein: met – phe –lys stop Transcription – DNA is used to make mRNA. Occurs in the nucleus. Translation – mRNA is used to make protein (amino acids that are linked together). Occurs at a ribosome. Mutations – change in the sequence of bases (A,T,C,Gs) – Gene mutations Point – one base changed (ex. an A is changed to a C) Frameshift mutations – inserting or deleting a base (changes the reading frame) – Chromosomal mutations Deletion – big part of chromosome sequence deleted Duplication – big part of chromosome sequence repeated Inversion- part of chromosome sequence inverted (reversed) Translocation – part of one chromosome is moved to another chromosome Nondisjunction – during meiosis when a sex cell ends up with the wrong number of chromosomes Mutations may change a protein, but do not have to change it. A mutation can be silent (no change), change an amino acid, or cause a premature stop codon. A mutation may have no effect or may be either harmful or beneficial. Genetic engineering - manipulation of genes o Genetically modified organisms - giving rice the gene to make beta carontene o Cloning – many animals have been cloned starting with Dolly the sheep o Gene therapy – trying to put a gene in a sick person to make them better 7 Life of a protein o Nucleus holds DNA which provides instructions to make proteins. o Ribosomes make proteins. o Proteins often move into the rough ER. In the rough ER proteins may be modified and are transported. o These proteins often go to the Golgi apparatus in vesicles (sacs). In the Golgi proteins are modified, sorted, and packaged in vesicles. o These vesicles take proteins to their destination somewhere in the cell or to the plasma membrane. Genetic Problems “Cheat Sheet” “Normal Problems” Incomplete Dominance Co-dominance Sex-linked Dominant or Recessive Homo = BB (black) Homo = BB (black) XX = girls B = dominant Homo = WW (white) Homo = WW (white) XY = boys b = recessive Hetero = BW (gray) Hetero = BW (black and white) Letters for genes only go on X’s (not Y’s). Blood Type Pedigrees Vocabulary AA and Ao = Type A homozygous = same alleles (BB or bb) BB and Bo = Type B heterozygous = different alleles (Bb) oo = Type O carrier - heterozygous Shaded = recessive Aa, AA, or A? for each phenotype = physical trait (ex. brown eyes or blue eyes) genotype = type of genes (ex. BB, Bb, or bb) Normal Problem (Brown eyes are dominant to blue. Cross two heterozygous people.) B b B BB Bb b Bb bb 3/4 brown eyes 1/4 blue eyes 8 Incomplete dominance (BB = black, WW = white, and BW = gray - Cross a black cat with a white cat.) B W BW W BW B BW BW 4/4 gray Codominance (BB = black, WW = white, and BW = black and white spotted - Cross a black cat with a white cat.) B W BW W BW B BW BW 4/4 black and white spotted Blood Type (Cross a homozygous type A with a heterozygous type B.) A A B AB AB o Ao Ao 2/2 Type AB 2/2 Type A Pedigrees (Shaded people have recessive trait – albino). Aa Aa aa A? Sex-linked (Hemophilia is sex-linked and recessive while normal blood cells are dominant. Cross a carrier woman with a normal male.) XH Xh XH XH XH XH Xh Y XHY XhY 2/4 normal females 1/4 normal male 1/4 hemophilia male 9 B.3 Theory of Evolution Evidence of evolution – Fossils – shows extinct organisms existed – Biochemistry – comparing DNA and protein sequences (Chimpanzees and human have more similar DNA than frogs and humans) – Comparative anatomy – comparing physical body structures (forelimb structures of human can cat are more similar than whale and human) – Comparative embryology – comparing embryos (embryos of pig and human are more similar than embryos of frogs and humans) – Direct Observation – witness changes in populations over time (increasing number of bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics) Natural selection is when the best adapted individuals survive and reproduce. For example, imagine a grassy environment where there are tan and green snakes. The green snakes are more common. Over time the land dries up and the grass dies leaving a more desert-like area. This makes the tan snakes more common than the green. The tan snakes were able to camouflage themselves in the “desert-like” environment. The tan snakes were better able to survive and reproduce compared to the green. The environment “selected” the tan snake. – The environment did NOT change a green snake into a tan snake. The environment can only select for or against a trait that already existed in the population. Adaptation – a trait that has evolved through natural selection and is a benefit to the organism – Structural – physical part (ex. pointy teeth for eating meat) – Physiological – chemical (ex. poison to kill prey) – Behavioral – an action (ex. mating dance to attract mate) Speciation – the formation of a new species – Isolation mechanisms – keep two groups apart and allow for forming two species Geographic – a geologic event separates two groups (Ex. Grand Canyon squirrels) Temporal – timing differences (species that mate at different times of year) Behavioral – different behaviors (birds that have different mating dances) Genetic – genetic differences prevent fertile offspring (horses and donkeys make sterile mules) Genetic drift – rapid gene frequency changes that occur by change in small, isolated populations Small populations do not typically have the diversity that larger populations have. Evolution is change in populations over many generations. Gene frequencies change in order for evolution to occur. Scientific Terms – Hypothesis – an educated guess – Inference – a conclusion based on data – Law – generalizes numerous observations; no exceptions have been found – Theory – explanation based on observation, empirical data – Fact – a truth known by observation or experience – Observation – something that can be seen/measured 10 B.4 Ecology Levels of ecological organization from smallest to largest: species, population, communities, ecosystem, biome, biosphere Abiotic - nonliving (rocks, air, water etc.) Biotic – living (plants, fungi, animals etc.) Food Webs – Producers make food (photosynthesis) – First consumers eat producers – Second consumers eat first consumers – Third consumers eat second consumers The amount of available energy decreases as you move up a food chain. More available energy is in the producers compared to the consumers. Energy is lost through metabolism, heat, and feces. 11 Succession – how living things change in an area after a disturbance; typically small plants grow first followed by animals and then larger plants; first species in an area are pioneer species (ex. lichens) Limiting factors – decrease the number of individuals in a population (ex. lack of food, predators etc.) – Could lead to extinction of a species Interactions – Competition – fighting over resources (like mates, territory) – Symbiosis – a very close relationship where on individual is living in or on another Mutualism – benefits both Commensalism – benefits one and does nothing to the other Parasitism – benefits one and harms the other – Predator prey relationship If predators increase then prey decreases (they are eaten). If predators decrease then prey increases (not as many eaten). If prey increases then predators increase (plenty to eat). If prey decreases then predators decrease (not enough to eat). Nitrogen cycle – Plants and animals cannot use nitrogen gas. Animals eat to get nitrogen. Plants need bacteria. Bacteria fix nitrogen so that plants can use it. These bacteria can live in the soil; some bacteria can live in the roots of plants called legumes (soy beans). – Decomposition puts nitrogen back into the soil. – Some bacteria can convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas. 12