Download What Is An Interjection?

PREICFES EX
PRIMERA PARTE
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45 questions.
7 sessions.
“Please
a. In
b. In
c. In
hand your room key to reception when leaving”
a car park.
a school.
a hotel.
“Day trip to castle leave at 9 am – return at 3 pm”.
a. At a police station.
b. At a tourist information office.
c. In a fast-food restaurant.
“Quiet please. People reading”.
a. In a library.
b. In an airport.
c. In a shop.
“Do no take food into the basketball hall”.
a. In a shoe stop.
b. In a sports center.
c. In a guest-house.
“Please
a. In
b. In
c. In
wait here for your table”.
a restaurant.
a bank.
a post office.
** https://www.youtube.com/embed/0C-2XX_2DZA
Please, choose the one you want to read.
a. On a board.
b. On a computer.
c. On a bookcase.
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TAKE ONLY AS TOLD BY DOCTOR
a. On a bag of apples.
b. On a medicine bottle.
c. On a jar of coffee.
TAKE A NUMBER AND WAIT FOR NURSE
a. At a bank.
b. At a supermarket.
c. At a hospital.
7:00 SHOW SOLD OUT
a. At an airport.
b. At a theater.
c. At a mechanic shop.
PLEASE BE QUIET
a. In a library.
b. In a playground.
c. In a bar.
PLEASE DON’T FEED THE ANIMALS
PLEASE HAND YOUR ROOM KEY TO RECEPTION WHEN LEAVING
a. In a car park.
b. In a school.
c. In a hotel.
SEGUNDA PARTE
A. DICTIONARY
B. DRIVING LICENSE
C. LETTER
D. MENU
E. NEWSPAPER
F. STREET MAP
G. TICKET
H. TIMETABLE
1. You usually put this inside an envelope before posting it. C
2. If you follow this you won’t be late for class. H
3. People buy this to learn what has happened in the world. E
4. The police may want to see this if they stop you in your car. B
5. You can not travel on most buses without one of these. G
a.
b.
c.
d.
A place where you buy fruit and vegetables.
Where people borrow books to read.
Here you can always buy fresh bread.
When you are sick you can buy your medicine here.
e. A place where you can send your letters.
A. SUPERMARKET
B. LIBRARY
C. BAKERY
D. PHARMACY
E. POST OFFICE.
TERCERA PARTE
I’d like the pasta, please.
a. Certainly.
b. I hope so.
c. Do you like it?
Shall we eat now.
a. Good idea !
b. This is fine.
c. It’s the same.
What do you think of modern art? Opinion.
a. I’ve seen it.
b. I would like to.
c. I love it.
Are you sure the match starts at two? Pregunta.
a. It started we.
b. It’s all right.
c. I think so.
I can’t do this math problem.
a. I suppose so.
b. Let me see.
c. Certainly not.
Can I see a menu please?
a. Let me see.
b. Certainly, here you are.
c. Thank you.
What size are you?
a. Nearly two kilos.
b. 22 years old.
c. I’m an extra large.
Do you have any baggage?
Yes, I do.
Yes, I am.
Yes, they do.
How many languages do you speak?
a. Four.
b. English.
c. About two hours.
Who are you waiting for?
a. It is two o’clock.
b. Home.
c. My brother.
What’s wrong?
I have a headache.
I like your dress, Sally.
Thank you.
Are you going to Neiva?
No, I’m not.
How much TV do you watch?
About two hours.
Is this Mary’s coat?
Yes, it is.
VERBS
The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-word sentence
with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence with
any other type of word.
Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many
verbs give the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words
like run, fight, do and work all convey action.
But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence,
of state, of "being". For example, verbs like be, exist, seem andbelong all
convey state.
A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English", Johnis
the subject and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say
that verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they describe:

action (Ram plays football.)

state (Anthony seems kind.)
There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words
(adjectives, adverbs, prepositions etc) do not change in form (although nouns
can have singular and plural forms). But almost all verbs change in form. For
example, the verb to work has five forms:

to work, work, works, worked, working
Of course, this is still very few forms compared to some languages which may
have thirty or more forms for a single verb.
PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions
Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front
of gerund verbs).
Even advanced learners of English find prepositions difficult, as a 1:1 translation is usually not
possible. One preposition in your native language might have several translations depending on the
situation.
There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn prepositions is
looking them up in adictionary, reading a lot in English (literature) and learning useful phrases off by
heart (study tips).
The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:
Prepositions – Time
English
Usage
Example

on

days of the week

on Monday

in

months / seasons

in August / in winter

time of day

in the morning

year

in 2006

after a certain period of time (when?)

in an hour

for night

at night

for weekend

at the weekend

a certain point of time (when?)

at half past nine
since

from a certain point of time (past till now)

since 1980

for

over a certain period of time (past till now)

for 2 years

ago

a certain time in the past

2 years ago
before

earlier than a certain point of time

before 2004
to

telling the time

ten to six (5:50)
past

telling the time

ten past six (6:10)
marking the beginning and end of a period of time

from Monday to/till Friday
in the sense of how long something is going to last

He is on holiday until Friday.

in the sense of at the latest

I will be back by 6 o’clock.

up to a certain time

By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.

at





to / till / 
until

till / until 

by
Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)
English

in
Usage
Example

room, building, street, town, country

in the kitchen, in London

book, paper etc.

in the book

car, taxi

in the car, in a taxi

picture, world

in the picture, in the world
English

at
Usage
Example

meaning next to, by an object

at the door, at the station

for table

at the table

for events

at a concert, at the party

place where you are to do something typical (watch a film,

at the cinema, at school, at work
study, work)

on


attached

the picture on the wall

for a place with a river

London lies on the Thames.

being on a surface

on the table

for a certain side (left, right)

on the left

for a floor in a house

on the first floor

for public transport

on the bus, on a plane

for television, radio

on TV, on the radio
left or right of somebody or something

Jane is standing by / next to / bes
by, next to, 
beside

under

on the ground, lower than (or covered by) something else

the bag is under the table

below

lower than something else but above ground

the fish are below the surface
over

covered by something else

put a jacket over your shirt

meaning more than

over 16 years of age

getting to the other side (also across)

walk over the bridge

overcoming an obstacle

climb over the wall


above

higher than something else, but not directly over it

a path above the lake

across

getting to the other side (also over)

walk across the bridge

getting to the other side

swim across the lake
through

something with limits on top, bottom and the sides

drive through the tunnel
to

movement to person or building

go to the cinema

movement to a place or country

go to London / Ireland

for bed

go to bed
into

enter a room / a building

go into the kitchen / the house
towards

movement in the direction of something (but not directly to it)

onto

movement to the top of something

jump onto the table

from

in the sense of where from

a flower from the garden




go 5 steps towards the house
Other important Prepositions
English

Usage
from 

of 


by 
Example
who gave it

a present from Jane
who/what does it belong to

a page of the book
what does it show

the picture of a palace
who made it

a book by Mark Twain
English

Usage
on 

Example
walking or riding on horseback

on foot, on horseback
entering a public transport vehicle

get on the bus

in 
entering a car / Taxi

get in the car

off 
leaving a public transport vehicle

get off the train

out 
leaving a car / Taxi

get out of the taxi
by 
rise or fall of something

prices have risen by 10 percent
travelling (other than walking or horseriding)

by car, by bus
for age

she learned Russian at 45
for topics, meaning what about

we were talking about you
of



at 

abo 
ut
INTERJECTIONS
What Is An Interjection?
An interjection is one of the eight major parts of speech, along
with verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs,prepositions and conjunctions. Some grammarians believe that
interjections are the least important part of speech. This is because interjections are not generally required in
order for the meaning of a sentence to become clear.
An interjection is a word solely designed to convey emotion. It expresses meaning or feeling. It does not:


relate grammatically to the other parts of the sentence
help the reader understand the relationship between words and phrases in the sentence
Instead, it simply conveys to the reader the way the author is feeling. Interjections are rarely used in academic
or formal writing, but are common in fiction or artistic writing. They are usually, but not always, offset by an
exclamation point (which is also used to show emotion).
Use of Interjections
Beginning of Sentences
When people think of interjections, they commonly think of them being used at the beginning of the sentence.
Many also associate interjections with a punctuation mark designed to convey emotion: the exclamation point.
This is often true. Interjections can and do appear in the beginning of sentences. For example:


“Yikes, I didn’t realize that there was a test on grammar today!”
“Oh no, I can’t believe that it is snowing here again!”
In both of these sentences the interjection - “yikes” and “oh no” appear at the beginning of the sentence. In
addition, in both of the sentences, the emotion is a strong emotion and the sentence itself ends with an
exclamation point.
Middle or End of Sentences
Interjections do not always have to be at the beginning of a sentence. They can appear in the middle, at the end,
or anyplace else where the author wants to interject a bit of feeling and emotion.
For example, in the sentence “So, it’s snowing again, huh?” the interjection is found at the end. Here, the
interjection is designed to express confusion (or perhaps dismay) at the continued snow falling. In this sentence,
the emotion wasn’t an emotion that necessitated an exclamation point--instead, the interjection ‘huh’ turned the
sentence into a question.
The sentence “In my opinion, my gosh, this is just the smartest thing you have ever said” the interjection is
found in the middle. It designed to express or convey the author’s emphasis on his opinion that the statement
was smart. Again, no exclamation point is required.
Stand-alone Sentence
An interjection can also be used by itself as a stand-alone sentence. For example, look at the two sentences: “Oh
gosh! I can’t believe how late it is.” The interjection “oh gosh” is a stand-alone sentence. This is grammatically
correct, although “Oh Gosh” does not contain a subject and action that is normally required for a complete
thought to be expressed. The interjection--or the emotion felt--is the entire point of the sentence.
Types of Interjections
There are literally hundreds, if not thousands, of interjections in the English language. Most are designed to
express strong emotions, such as love, hate, surprise, happiness, anger, enthusiasm, disgust, boredom, confusion
or unhappiness. However, this is not always true. Some interjections can express either a mild emotion, or can
be expressions, such as “Excuse me.”
A sample list of interjections includes words such as:











Aha
Boo
Crud
Dang
Eew
Gosh
Goodness
Ha
Oh
Oops
Oh no








Ouch
Rats
Shoot
Uh-oh
Uh-huh
Ugh
Yikes
Yuck
This is by no means an exhaustive list, but is representative of the types of interjections you may use on a daily
basis. For more examples see Examples of Interjections.
Identifying Interjections
Now that you’ve looked at a list of interjections, practice identifying them in these ten sentences:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Yowza! That is a fine looking car.
Hurray! It is a snow day and school is cancelled.
It is so exciting, my goodness, I just can’t believe it.
Joe was late to school and yikes, the teacher was mad.
Oh! I can’t believe how nice you look.
Well, gee, that sure is a kind thing to say.
Boo! I scared you.
Woops, I dropped the milk and it spilled.
Yay, it is finally Friday and the work week is over.
Oh well, all good things must come to an end.
Answers to Identifying Interjections:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Yowza! That is a fine looking car: Yowza is the interjection here. It is expressing the emotion of being quite
impressed with the car.
Hurray! It is a snow day and school is cancelled Hurray is the emotion here. Clearly, it is expressing happiness.
It is so exciting, my goodness, I just can’t believe it. My goodness is the interjection here, expressing excitement.
Joe was late to school and yikes, the teacher was mad. Yikes is the emotion being expressed here.
Oh! I can’t believe how nice you look. Oh, the interjection, acts as a classic interjection at the beginning of a
sentence. It is offset by its exclamation point.
Well, gee, that sure is a kind thing to say. Here, we have two interjections: well and gee.
Boo! I scared you. Boo is the rather obvious (and scary) interjection in this sentence.
Woops, I dropped the milk and it spilled. Woops is the interjection used to express the error.
Yay, it is finally Friday and the work week is over. Yay is another interjection that expresses the emotion of
happiness, just as hurray did in sentence #2.
Oh well, all good things must come to an end. Oh well is the emotion here, an interjection with a tinge of
resignation.
Interjections in Writing
Interjections are not commonly used in formal or academic writing. Because of the function that interjections
serve, there is virtually no place for them in an academic paper that is designed to convey facts. By definition,
facts should be devoid of emotion or opinion such as the emotions conveyed by interjections.
Interjections are used most often in speech. While people don’t necessarily pause to think about it, they use
interjections all the time. This is even more true when you consider the fact that common words used in pauses,
such as “uh,” and “um” are interjections.
Interjections can find their way into fictional pieces, most often in the form of dialogue. They can also be used
in informal written communication between two people, such as letters or emails.
ADJECTIVES
What Is an Adjective?
The simplest definition of an adjective is that it is a word that describes or clarifies a noun. Adjectives describe
nouns by giving some information about an object’s size, shape, age, color, origin or material.

It’s a big table. (size)

It’s a round table. (shape)

It’s an old table. (age)

It’s a brown table. (color)

It’s an English table. (origin)

It’s a wooden table. (material)

It’s a lovely table. (opinion)

It’s a broken table. (observation)

It’s a coffee table. (purpose)
When an item is defined by its purpose, that word is usually not an adjective, but it acts as one in that situation.




coffee table
pool hall
hunting cabin
baseball player
What Do Adjectives Look Like?
English can be very tricky, so you have to be careful, but a lot of English adjectives end with these suffixes:













-able/-ible – adorable, invisible, responsible, uncomfortable
-al – educational, gradual, illegal, nocturnal, viral
-an – American, Mexican, urban
-ar – cellular, popular, spectacular, vulgar
-ent – intelligent, potent, silent, violent
-ful – harmful, powerful, tasteful, thoughtful
-ic/-ical – athletic, energetic, magical, scientific
-ine – bovine, canine, equine, feminine, masculine
-ile – agile, docile, fertile, virile
-ive – informative, native, talkative
-less – careless, endless, homeless, timeless
-ous – cautious, dangerous, enormous, malodorous
-some – awesome, handsome, lonesome, wholesome
Many adjectives also end with -y, -ary and -ate, but lots of nouns and adverbs also end with -y, lots of nouns
also end with -ary, and lots of nouns and verbs also end with -ate, so be careful with those.
Where Do Adjectives Go in a Sentence?
If you come across a word that ends in -y, -ary or -ate (or any other suffix for that matter), and you want to
know whether it’s an adjective or not, just look at where it is and what it’s doing in the sentence. If it comes
immediately before a noun, and especially if it comes between an article (a, an, the), a possessive adjective (my,
his, her, its, your, our, their), ademonstrative (this, that, these, those) or an amount (some, most, all, a few) and a
noun, then it’s probably an adjective.




The grassy field was wet with dew. – “Grassy” comes between an article (the) and a noun (field), so you know it’s
an adjective.
These are my old trophies. – “Old” comes between a possessive adjective (my) and a noun (trophies), making it
an adjective.
We had a few ordinary days. – “Ordinary” comes between an amount (a few) and a noun (days), so it’s definitely
an adjective.
Did you see that immaculate kitchen? – “Immaculate” comes between a demonstrative (that) and a noun
(kitchen), so it must be an adjective.
Adjectives also act as complements. Complements are words that complete the predicate of a sentence when the
verb is “be.”




He is tall.
We’ve been teachers for five years.
You were my best friend.
He was smart, handsome and rich.
As you can see, not all complements are adjectives. In these examples, “tall” and “smart, handsome and rich”
are adjectives, but “teachers for five years” and “my best friend” are both noun phrases. If the complement is
only one word, there’s a good chance it’s an adjective. Also if the complement is a list of words, those are
probably also adjectives. If an article (a, an, the) or a possessive (my, his, her, its, your, our, their, mine, his,
hers, its, yours, ours, theirs) is involved, it’s a noun phrase.
What’s the Correct Order for Multiple Adjectives?
When you list several adjectives in a row, there’s a specific order they need to be written or spoken. Native
speakers of English tend to put them in the correct order naturally, but if you’re learning English, you’ll have to
memorize the order. It goes like this:









Determiner – This means an article (a, an, the), a number or amount, a possessive adjective (my, his, her, its, your,
our, their), or a demonstrative (this, that, these, those).
Observation/Opinion – Beautiful, expensive, gorgeous, broken, delicious, ugly
Size – Huge, tiny, 4-foot-tall
Shape – Square, circular, oblong
Age – 10-year-old, new, antique
Color – Black, red, blue-green
Origin – Roman, English, Mongolian
Material – Silk, silver, plastic, wooden
Qualifier – A noun or verb acting as adjective
This is the correct order for adjectives that come directly before a noun, and they are separated by commas.

My beautiful, big, circular, antique, brown, English, wooden coffee table was broken in the move.
If the adjectives come after the verb “be” as the complement, then the qualifier will stick with the noun at the
beginning of the sentence. The adjectives in the complement are separated by commas with the final two being
separated by “and.” For example, My coffee table is beautiful, big, circular, antique, brown, English and
wooden.
DETERMINANTS
What Is a Determiner?
In the midst of all the nouns, pronouns, adjectives and articles a student is expected to learn, the determiner is
often left by the wayside, untaught or taught incorrectly. The determiner is an important noun modifier which
contextualizes a noun, often in terms of quantity and possession. Determiners in English precede a noun phrase
and includedemonstratives, possessives, and quantifiers.
Determiners in English
There are many different determiners in the English language.




Articles are among the most common of the determiners. A, an, and the all express the definiteness and specificity
of a noun. For example, “the” is a definite article, meaning the person using the word is referring to a specific one.
On the other hand, “a” or “an” are indefinite.
Demonstratives, such as this, that, these and those, require a frame of reference in which an individual can point
out the entities referred to by a speaker or a writer.
Quantifiers, such as all, few, and many, point out how much or how little of something is being indicated.
When referring to an entity that belongs to another, you can use possessives. My, your, their, and its are a few
examples.
There are many other types of determiners. For instance, cardinal numbers, the numbers that are written out in
English, are also included in the class of determiners. Determiners are generally split into two groups—definite
determiners and indefinite determiners.
Function of a Determiners
A determiner can take on a number of different meanings and roles in a sentence. The determiner is used in
every case to clarify the noun.

They may be used to demonstrate or define something or someone.
Quantifiers state how many of a thing, in number or expression. A determiner is used to show that the noun
indicated is a specific one (that one), not an unspecific one (any).

They may also state the differences between nouns.
While determiners may have a number of other functions, most of them are related to these two key areas. The
list of determiners only numbers about 50 words, and all of these words are commonly used by most
individuals. Determiners are not difficult to get the grasp of when contrasted with adjectives, and do not take
too long for native English speakers to grasp. After all, how many times have you had trouble deciding whether
to say “the” or “a”?
Determining Determiners
How should you choose which determiner to use? For those who were raised speaking the English language,
determining the determiner to use is second-nature, since determiners are so often used in front of nouns.
Like the basic parts of speech, determiners are so ingrained into the English language that using them is simple.
The same goes for most Indo-European languages (for instance, Romance languages such as Spanish and
the Germanic languagessuch as German).
However, the languages of other countries may not use determiners, or may have sets of rules very different
than the English language does. For these individuals, learning how and where to use determiners can be rather
difficult.
Determiners and Adjectives
Until recently, English teaching in schools did not take determiners into account. Many determiners were
simply lumped into the category of “adjectives,” which works for some but certainly not for all.


Adjectives have primarily three functions: they modify noun phrases, or complement the object or subject of a
sentence.
The function of a determiner is to express proximity, relationship, quantity, and definiteness.
Determiners are not gradable as are adjectives. For example, a person may be angry, angrier, or the angriest. A
person can not be “her-est” or “the-est.”
Determiners are usually necessary (or obligatory) in a sentence, whereas adjectives are not.
Adjectives, unlike determiners, cannot have corresponding pronouns.
Adjectives and determiners are distinct from one another and cannot simply be lumped into the same category.
**
General and specific determiners
Determiners are words which come at the beginning of the noun phrase.
They tell us whether the noun phrase is specific or general.
Determiners are either specific or general
Specific determiners:
The specific determiners are:

the definite article: the

possessives: my, your, his, her, its; our, their, whose

demonstratives: this, that, these, those

interrogatives: which
We use a specific determiner when we believe the listener/reader knows exactly what we are
referring to:
Can you pass me the salt please?
Look at those lovely flowers.
Thank you very much for your letter.
Whose coat is this?
General determiners:
The general determiners are:

a; an; any; another; other; what
When we are talking about things in general and the listener/reader does not know exactly what we
are referring to, we can use a uncount noun or a plural noun with no determiner:
Milk is very good for you. (= uncount noun)
Health and education are very important. (= 2 uncount nouns)
Girls normally do better in school than boys. (= plural nouns with no determiner)
… or you can use a singular noun with the indefinite article a or an:
A woman was lifted to safety by a helicopter.
A man climbing nearby saw the accident.
We use the general determiner any with a singular noun or an uncount noun when we are talking
about all of those people or things:
It’s very easy. Any child can do it. (= All children can do it)
With a full licence you are allowed to drive any car.
I like beef, lamb, pork - any meat.
We use the general determiner another to talk about an additional person or thing:
Would you like another glass of wine?
The plural form of another is other:
I spoke to John, Helen and a few other friends.
Quantifiers
We use quantifiers when we want to give someone information about the number of something: how
much or how many
- See more at: http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/determiners-andquantifiers#sthash.InOKp3va.dpuf
ADVERBS
https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adverbs.htm
What is an Adverb?
adverb (noun): a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb, expressing manner, place, time or degree; a
word that can modify a phrase, clause or sentence
An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies"
a verb (The man ran quickly). In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the
verb that it modifies is in italics.

John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)

Afterwards she smoked a cigarette. (When did she smoke?)

Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)
But adverbs can also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful), or even
other adverbs (It works very well). Look at these examples:

Modify an adjective:
- He is really handsome. (How handsome is he?)
- That was extremely kind of you.

Modify another adverb:
- She drives incredibly slowly. (How slowly does she drive?)
- He drives extremely fast.
Note that adverbs have other functions, too. They can:

Modify a whole sentence: Obviously, I can't know everything.

Modify a prepositional phrase: It's immediately inside the door.
Adverbs
Adverbs are words that modify



a verb (He drove slowly. — How did he drive?)
an adjective (He drove a very fast car. — How fast was his car?)
another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. — How slowly did she move?)
As we will see, adverbs often tell when, where, why, or under what conditions something
happens or happened. Adverbs frequently end in -ly; however, many words and phrases not ending
in -ly serve an adverbial function and an -ly ending is not a guarantee that a word is an adverb. The
words lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly, neighborly, for instance, are adjectives:

That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood.
If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb (modifying the verb of a
sentence), it is called an Adverb Clause:

When this class is over, we're going to the movies.
When a group of words not containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb, it is called
an adverbial phrase. Prepositional phrases frequently have adverbial functions (telling place and
time, modifying the verb):



He went to the movies.
She works on holidays.
They lived in Canada during the war.
And Infinitive phrases can act as adverbs (usually telling why):


She hurried to the mainland to see her brother.
The senator ran to catch the bus.
But there are other kinds of adverbial phrases:

He calls his mother as often as possible.
Adverbs can modify adjectives, but an adjective cannot modify an
adverb. Thus we would say that "the students showed a really wonderful
attitude" and that "the students showed a wonderfully casual attitude" and
that "my professor is really tall, but not "He ran real fast."
Like adjectives, adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms
to show degree.


Walk faster if you want to keep up with me.
The student who reads fastest will finish first.
We often use more and most, less and least to show degree with
adverbs:




With sneakers on, she could move more quickly among the patients.
The flowers were the most beautifully arranged creations I've ever seen.
She worked less confidently after her accident.
That was the least skillfully done performance I've seen in years.
Click on "Lolly's Place" to
read and hear Bob
Dorough's "Get Your
Adverbs Here" (from
Scholastic Rock, 1974).
Schoolhouse Rock®
and its characters
andother elements are
trademarks and service
marks of American
Broadcasting Companies,
Inc. Used with permission.
The as — as construction can be used to create adverbs that express
sameness or equality: "He can't run as fast as his sister."
A handful of adverbs have two forms, one that ends in -ly and one that doesn't. In certain cases,
the two forms have different meanings:


He arrived late.
Lately, he couldn't seem to be on time for anything.
In most cases, however, the form without the -ly ending should be reserved for casual situations:



She certainly drives slow in that old Buick of hers.
He did wrong by her.
He spoke sharp, quick, and to the point.
Adverbs often function as intensifiers, conveying a greater or lesser emphasis to something.
Intensifiers are said to have three different functions: they can emphasize, amplify, or downtone.
Here are some examples:

Emphasizers:
o
o
o
o

Amplifiers:
o
o
o
o
o

I really don't believe him.
He literally wrecked his mother's car.
She simply ignored me.
They're going to be late, for sure.
The teacher completely rejected her proposal.
I absolutely refuse to attend any more faculty meetings.
They heartily endorsed the new restaurant.
I so wanted to go with them.
We know this city well.
Downtoners:
o
o
o
o
o
o
I kind of like this college.
Joe sort of felt betrayed by his sister.
His mother mildly disapproved his actions.
We can improve on this to some extent.
The boss almost quit after that.
The school was all but ruined by the storm.
Adverbs (as well as adjectives) in their various degrees can be accompanied by premodifiers:


She runs very fast.
We're going to run out of material all the faster
This issue is addressed in the section on degrees in adjectives.
For this section on intensifiers, we are indebted to A Grammar of Contemporary English by Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum,
Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. Longman Group: London. 1978. pages 438 to 457. Examples our own.
Using Adverbs in a Numbered List
Within the normal flow of text, it's nearly always a bad idea to number items beyond three or
four, at the most. Anything beyond that, you're better off with a vertical list that uses numbers (1,
2, 3, etc.). Also, in such a list, don't use adverbs (with an -ly ending); use instead the uninflected
ordinal number (first, second, third, fourth, fifth, etc.). First (not firstly), it's unclear what the
adverb is modifying. Second (not secondly), it's unnecessary. Third (not thirdly), after you get
beyond "secondly," it starts to sound silly. Adverbs that number in this manner are treated
asdisjuncts (see below.)
Adverbs We Can Do Without
Review the section on Being Concise for some advice on adverbs that we can eliminate to the
benefit of our prose: intensifiers such as very, extremely, and really that don't intensify anything
and expletive constructions ("There are several books that address this issue.")
Kinds of Adverbs
Adverbs of Manner
She moved slowly and spoke quietly.
Adverbs of Place
She has lived on the island all her life.
She still lives there now.
Adverbs of Frequency
She takes the boat to the mainland every day.
She often goes by herself.
Adverbs of Time
She tries to get back before dark.
It's starting to get dark now.
She finished her tea first.
She left early.
Adverbs of Purpose
She drives her boat slowly to avoid hitting the rocks.
She shops in several stores to get the best buys.
Positions of Adverbs
One of the hallmarks of adverbs is their ability to move around in a sentence. Adverbs of
manner are particularly flexible in this regard.



Solemnly the minister addressed her congregation.
The minister solemnly addressed her congregation.
The minister addressed her congregation solemnly.
The following adverbs of frequency appear in various points in these sentences:



Before the main verb: I never get up before nine o'clock.
Between the auxiliary verb and the main verb: I have rarely written to my brother without a good reason.
Before the verb used to: I always used to see him at his summer home.
Indefinite adverbs of time can appear either before the verb or between the auxiliary and the
main verb:


He finally showed up for batting practice.
She has recently retired.
PRONOUNS
Pronouns
More Grammar Rules:
Definition
A pronoun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone, everybody, etc.) is a word that
takes the place of a noun. In the sentence Joe saw Jill, and he waved at her, the pronouns he and her take the place of Joe and Jill,
respectively. There are three types of pronouns: subject (for example, he); object (him); or possessive(his).
Rule 1. Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by
filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence.
Example: ___ did the job.
I, he, she, we, they, who, whoever, etc., all qualify and are, therefore, subject pronouns.
Rule 2. Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They will follow to beverbs, such as is, are, was, were, am, will be,
had been, etc.
Examples:
It is he.
This is she speaking.
It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize.
NOTE
In informal English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object pronouns like me, her, them. Many English scholars tolerate this
distinction between formal and casual English.
Example: It could have been them.
Technically correct: It could have been they.
Example: It is just me at the door.
Technically correct: It is just I at the door.
Rule 3. This rule surprises even language watchers: when who refers to a personal pronoun (I, you, he, she, we, they), it takes the verb
that agrees with that pronoun.
Correct: It is I who am sorry. (I am)
Incorrect: It is I who is sorry.
Correct: It is you who are mistaken. (you are)
Incorrect: It is you who's mistaken.
Rule 4. Object pronouns are used everywhere else beyond Rules 1 and 2 (direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition).
Object pronouns include me, him, herself, us, them, themselves, etc.
Examples:
Jean saw him.
Him is the direct object.
Give her the book.
Her is the indirect object. The direct object is book.
Are you talking to me?
Me is the object of the preposition to.
Rule 5. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural depending on the subject. If the subject is singular, use a singular
verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Example: He is the only one of those men who is always on time.
The word who refers to one. Therefore, use the singular verb is.
Sometimes we must look more closely to find a verb's true subject:
Example: He is one of those men who are always on time.
The word who refers to men. Therefore, use the plural verb are.
In sentences like this last example, many would mistakenly insist that one is the subject, requiring is always on time. But look at it this
way: Of those men who are always on time, he is one.
Rule 6. Pronouns that are singular (I, he, she, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, someone, somebody, each,
either, neither, etc.) require singular verbs. This rule is frequently overlooked when using the pronouns each, either, and neither,
followed by of. Those three pronouns always take singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.
Examples:
Each of the girls sings well.
Either of us is capable of doing the job.
Neither of them is available to speak right now.
Exception: When each follows a noun or pronoun in certain sentences, even experienced writers sometimes get tripped up:
Incorrect: The women each gave her approval.
Correct: The women each gave their approval.
Incorrect: The words are and there each ends with a silent vowel.
Correct: The words are and there each end with a silent vowel.
These examples do not contradict Rule 6, because each is not the subject, but rather anadjunct describing the true subject.
Rule 7. To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.
Examples:
Tranh is as smart as she/her.
If we mentally complete the sentence, we would say Tranh is as smart as she is. Therefore, she is the correct answer.
Zoe is taller than I/me.
Mentally completing the sentence, we have Zoe is taller than I am.
Daniel would rather talk to her than I/me.
We can interpret this sentence in two ways: Daniel would rather talk to her than to me.OR Daniel would rather talk to her than I
would. A sentence's meaning can change considerably, depending on the pronoun you choose.
Rule 8. The possessive pronouns yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, and whose never need apostrophes. Avoid mistakes
like her's and your's.
Rule 9. The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it has. The only time who's has an apostrophe is when
it means who is or who has. There is no apostrophe in oneself. Avoid "one's self," a common error.
Examples:
It's been a cold morning.
The thermometer reached its highest reading.
He's the one who's always on time.
He's the one whose wife is always on time.
Keeping oneself ready is important.
Rule 10. Pronouns that end in -self or -selves are called reflexive pronouns. There are nine reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself,
himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves, andthemselves.
Reflexive pronouns are used when both the subject and the object of a verb are the same person or thing.
Example: Joe helped himself.
If the object of a preposition refers to a previous noun or pronoun, use a reflexive pronoun:
Example: Joe bought it for himself.
Reflexive pronouns help avoid confusion and nonsense. Without them, we might be stuck with sentences like Joe helped Joe.
Correct: I worked myself to the bone.
The object myself is the same person as the subject I, performing the act of working.
Incorrect: My brother and myself did it.
Correct: My brother and I did it.
Don't use myself unless the pronoun I or me precedes it in the sentence.
Incorrect: Please give it to John or myself.
Correct: Please give it to John or me.
Correct: You saw me being myself.
Myself refers back to me in the act of being.
A sentence like Help yourself looks like an exception to the rule until we realize it's shorthand for You may help yourself.
In certain cases, a reflexive pronoun may come first.
Example: Doubting himself, the man proceeded cautiously.
Reflexive pronouns are also used for emphasis.
Example: He himself finished the whole job.
Rule 11a. Avoid they and their with singular pronouns.
Incorrect: Someone brought their lunch.
Correct: Someone brought her lunch.
OR
Someone brought his lunch.
If the gender is undetermined, you could say Someone brought his or her lunch (more on this option in Rule 11b).
Rule 11b. Singular pronouns must stay singular throughout the sentence.
Incorrect: Someone has to do it—and they have to do it well.
The problem is that someone is singular, but they is plural. If we change they to he or she, we get a rather clumsy sentence, even if it is
technically correct.
Technically correct: Someone has to do it—and he or she has to do it well.
Replacing an ungrammatical sentence with a poorly written correction is a bad bargain. The better option is to rewrite.
Rewritten: Someone has to do it—and has to do it well.
Many writers abhor the he or she solution. Following are more examples of why rewriting is a better idea than using he or she or him or
her to make sentences grammatical.
Incorrect: No one realizes when their time is up.
Correct but awkward: No one realizes when his or her time is up.
Rewritten: None realize when their time is up.
Incorrect: If you see anyone on the trail, tell them to be careful.
Correct but awkward: If you see anyone on the trail, tell him or her to be careful.
Rewritten: Tell anyone you see on the trail to be careful.
Rule 12. When a pronoun is linked with a noun by and, mentally remove the and + noun phrase to avoid trouble.
Incorrect: Her and her friend came over.
If we remove and her friend, we're left with the ungrammatical Her came over.
Correct: She and her friend came over.
Incorrect: I invited he and his wife.
If we remove and his wife, we're left with the ungrammatical I invited he.
Correct: I invited him and his wife.
Incorrect: Bill asked my sister and I.
If we remove my sister and, we're left with the ungrammatical Bill asked I.
Correct: Bill asked my sister and me.
NOTE
Do not combine a subject pronoun and an object pronoun in phrases like her and I or he and me. Whenever and or or links an object
pronoun (her, me) and a subject pronoun (he, I), one of those pronouns will always be wrong.
Incorrect: Her and I went home.
Correct: She and I went home. (She went and I went.)
CONJUNCTIONS
Some words are satisfied spending an evening at home, alone, eating ice-cream right out of the
box, watching Seinfeld re-runs on TV, or reading a good book. Others aren't happy unless they're
out on the town, mixing it up with other words; they're joiners and they just can't help
themselves. A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence.
Coordinating Conjunctions
The simple, little conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions (you can click on the
words to see specific descriptions of each one):
Coordinating Conjunctions
and
but
or
yet
for
nor
so
(It may help you remember these conjunctions by recalling that they all have fewer than four
letters. Also, remember the acronym FANBOYS: For-And-Nor-But-Or-Yet-So. Be careful of the
words then and now; neither is a coordinating conjunction, so what we say about coordinating
conjunctions' roles in a sentence and punctuation does not apply to those
two words.)
When a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses,
it is often (but not always) accompanied by a comma:

Ulysses wants to play for UConn, but he has had trouble meeting the
academic requirements.
When the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating
conjunction are nicely balanced or brief, many writers will omit the
comma:

Ulysses has a great jump shot but he isn't quick on his feet.
The comma is always correct when used to separate two independent
clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction. See Punctuation
Between Two Independent Clauses for further help.
A comma is also correct when and is used to attach the last item of a serial
list, although many writers (especially in newspapers) will omit that final
comma:

Click on "Conjunction
Junction" to read and hear
Bob Dorough's "Conjunction
Junction" (from Scholastic
Rock, 1973).
Schoolhouse Rock® and its
characters and other
elements are
trademarks and service
marks of American
Broadcasting Companies,
Inc. Used with permission.
Ulysses spent his summer studying basic math, writing, and reading comprehension.
When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a series, a comma is not
used:

Presbyterians and Methodists and Baptists are the prevalent Protestant congregations in Oklahoma.
A comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast:

This is a useful rule, but difficult to remember.
In most of their other roles as joiners (other than joining independent clauses, that is),
coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence elements without the help of a comma.




Hemingway and Fitzgerald are among the American expatriates of the between-the-wars era.
Hemingway was renowned for his clear style and his insights into American notions of male identity.
It is hard to say whether Hemingway or Fitzgerald is the more interesting cultural icon of his day.
Although Hemingway is sometimes disparaged for his unpleasant portrayal of women and for his
glorification of machismo, we nonetheless find some sympathetic, even heroic, female figures in his
novels and short stories.
Beginning a Sentence with And or But
A frequently asked question about conjunctions is whether and or but can be used at the
beginning of a sentence. This is what R.W. Burchfield has to say about this use of and:
There is a persistent belief that it is improper to begin a sentence with And, but this prohibition
has been cheerfully ignored by standard authors from Anglo-Saxon times onwards. An
initial And is a useful aid to writers as the narrative continues.
from The New Fowler's Modern English Usage
edited by R.W. Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 1996.
Used with the permission of Oxford University Press.
The same is true with the conjunction but. A sentence beginning with and or but will tend to
draw attention to itself and its transitional function. Writers should examine such sentences
with two questions in mind: (1) would the sentence and paragraph function just as well without
the initial conjunction? (2) should the sentence in question be connected to the previous
sentence? If the initial conjunction still seems appropriate, use it.
Among the coordinating conjunctions, the most common, of course, are and, but, and or. It
might be helpful to explore the uses of these three little words. The examples below by no means
exhaust the possible meanings of these conjunctions.
AN D
a. To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another: "Tashonda sent in her
applications and waited by the phone for a response."
b. To suggest that one idea is the result of another: "Willie heard the weather report and promptly boarded
up his house."
c. To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another (frequently replaced by but in this usage): "Juanita is
brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasant personality.
d. To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this usage): "Hartford is a rich
city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight."
e. To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally (usually the first clause is an
imperative): "Use your credit cards frequently and you'll soon find yourself deep in debt."
f. To suggest a kind of "comment" on the first clause: "Charlie became addicted to gambling —
and that surprised no one who knew him."
BUT
a. To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: "Joey lost a fortune in the stock
market, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably."
b. To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative way
(sometimes replaced by on the contrary): "The club never invested foolishly, but used the services of a
sage investment counselor."
c. To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of" (and then the second word takes over
as subject): "Everybody but Goldenbreath is trying out for the team."
OR
a. To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other: "You can study hard for
this exam or you can fail."
b. To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives: "We can broil chicken on the grill tonight, or we can
just eat leftovers.
c. To suggest a refinement of the first clause: "Smith College is the premier all-women's college in the
country, or so it seems to most Smith College alumnae."
d. To suggest a restatement or "correction" of the first part of the sentence: "There are no rattlesnakes in
this canyon, or so our guide tells us."
e. To suggest a negative condition: "The New Hampshire state motto is the rather grim "Live
free or die."
f. To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative (see use of and above): "They
must approve his political style or they wouldn't keep electing him mayor."
Authority used for this section on the uses of and, but, and or: A University Grammar of English by Randolph Quirk and Sidney
Greenbaum. Longman Group: Essex, England. 1993. Used with permission. Examples our own.
The Others . . .
The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as the other conjunctions,
so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or writing. Its most common use
is as the little brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor (see below):


He is neither sane nor brilliant.
That is neither what I said nor what I meant.
>It can be used with other negative expressions:

That is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my statement as an admission of guilt.
It is possible to use nor without a preceding negative element, but it is unusual and, to an extent,
rather stuffy:

George's handshake is as good as any written contract, nor has he ever proven untrustworthy.
The word YET functions sometimes as an adverb and has several meanings: in addition ("yet
another cause of trouble" or "a simple yet noble woman"), even ("yet more expensive"), still ("he is
yet a novice"), eventually ("they may yet win"), and so soon as now ("he's not here yet"). It also
functions as a coordinating conjunction meaning something like "nevertheless" or "but." The
word yet seems to carry an element of distinctiveness that but can seldom register.


John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton.
The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to play golf every day.
In sentences such as the second one, above, the pronoun subject of the second clause ("they," in this
case) is often left out. When that happens, the comma preceding the conjunction might also
disappear: "The visitors complained loudly yet continued to play golf every day."
Yet is sometimes combined with other conjunctions, but or and. It would not be unusual to see and
yet in sentences like the ones above. This usage is acceptable.
The word FOR is most often used as a preposition, of course, but it does serve, on rare
occasions, as a coordinating conjunction. Some people regard the conjunction for as rather
highfalutin and literary, and it does tend to add a bit of weightiness to the text. Beginning a
sentence with the conjunction "for" is probably not a good idea, except when you're singing "For
he's a jolly good fellow. "For" has serious sequential implications and in its use the order of
thoughts is more important than it is, say, with because or since. Its function is to introduce the
reason for the preceding clause:


John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the company's board of trustees.
Most of the visitors were happy just sitting around in the shade, for it had been a long, dusty journey on
the train.
Be careful of the conjunction SO. Sometimes it can connect two independent clauses along
with a comma, but sometimes it can't. For instance, in this sentence,

Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother, sister, and his Uncle Chet.
where the word so means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers would use a semicolon
between the two independent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is acting like a minorleague "therefore," the conjunction and the comma are adequate to the task:

Soto has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoids crowds of his adoring
fans.
Sometimes, at the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a kind of summing up device or transition,
and when it does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma:

So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his parents.
The Case of Then and Than
In some parts of the United States, we are told, then and than not only
look alike, they sound alike. Like a teacher with twins in her classroom,
you need to be able to distinguish between these two words; otherwise,
they'll become mischievous. They are often used and they should be
used for the right purposes.
Than is used to make comparisons. In the sentence "Piggy would rather
be rescued then stay on the island," we have employed the wrong word
because a comparison is being made between Piggy's two choices; we need than instead. In
the sentence, "Other than Pincher Martin, Golding did not write another popular novel," the
adverbial construction "other than" helps us make an implied comparison; this usage is
perfectly acceptable in the United States but careful writers in the UK try to avoid it
(Burchfield).
Generally, the only question about than arises when we have to decide whether the word
is being used as a conjunction or as a preposition. If it's a preposition (and Merriam-Webster's
dictionary provides for this usage), then the word that follows it should be in the object form.


He's taller and somewhat more handsome than me.
Just because you look like him doesn't mean you can play better than him.
Most careful writers, however, will insist that than be used as a conjunction; it's as if part of
the clause introduced by than has been left out:


He's taller and somewhat more handsome than I [am handsome].
You can play better than he [can play].
In formal, academic text, you should probably use than as a conjunction and follow it with the
subject form of a pronoun (where a pronoun is appropriate).
Then is a conjunction, but it is not one of the little conjunctions listed at the top of this page.
We can use the FANBOYS conjunctions to connect two independent clauses; usually, they will
be accompanied (preceded) by a comma. Too many students think that then works the same
way: "Caesar invaded Gaul, then he turned his attention to England." You can tell the
difference between then and a coordinating conjunction by trying to move the word around in
the sentence. We can write "he then turned his attention to England"; "he turned his attention,
then, to England"; he turned his attention to England then." The word can move around within
the clause. Try that with a conjunction, and you will quickly see that the conjunction cannot
move around. "Caesar invaded Gaul, and then he turned his attention to England." The
word and is stuck exactly there and cannot move like then, which is more like an adverbial
conjunction (or conjunctive adverb — see below) than a coordinating conjunction. Our original
sentence in this paragraph — "Caesar invaded Gaul, then he turned his attention to England"
— is a comma splice, a faulty sentence construction in which a comma tries to hold together
two independent clauses all by itself: the comma needs a coordinating conjunction to help
out, and the word then simply doesn't work that way.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator) comes at
the beginning of a Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and establishes the relationship between
the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that
depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.



He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life.
Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies.
Unless we act now, all is lost.
Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below — after, before, since —
are also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to introduce a clause and to
subordinate the following clause to the independent element in the sentence.
Common Subordinating
Conjunctions
after
although
as
as if
as long as
as though
because
before
even if
even though
if
if only
in order that
now that
once
rather than
since
so that
than
that
though
till
unless
until
when
whenever
where
whereas
wherever
while
The Case of Like and As
Strictly speaking, the word like is a preposition, not a conjunction. It can, therefore, be used to
introduce a prepositional phrase ("My brother is talllike my father"), but it should not be used
to introduce a clause ("My brother can't play the piano like as he did before the accident" or "It
lookslike as if basketball is quickly overtaking baseball as America's national sport."). To
introduce a clause, it's a good idea to use as, as though, oras if, instead.



Like As I told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed.
It looks like as if it's going to snow this afternoon.
Johnson kept looking out the window like as though he had someone waiting for him.
In formal, academic text, it's a good idea to reserve the use of like for situations in which
similarities are being pointed out:

This community college is like a two-year liberal arts college.
However, when you are listing things that have similarities, such as is probably more suitable:

The college has several highly regarded neighbors, like such as the Mark Twain House,
St. Francis Hospital, the Connecticut Historical Society, and the UConn Law School.
Omitting That
The word that is used as a conjunction to connect a subordinate clause to a preceding verb.
In this construction that is sometimes called the "expletive that." Indeed, the word is often
omitted to good effect, but the very fact of easy omission causes some editors to take out the
red pen and strike out the conjunction that wherever it appears. In the following sentences,
we can happily omit the that (or keep it, depending on how the sentence sounds to us):



Isabel knew [that] she was about to be fired.
She definitely felt [that] her fellow employees hadn't supported her.
I hope [that] she doesn't blame me.
Sometimes omitting the that creates a break in the flow of a sentence, a break that can be
adequately bridged with the use of a comma:


The problem is, that production in her department has dropped.
Remember, that we didn't have these problems before she started working here.
As a general rule, if the sentence feels just as good without the that, if no ambiguity results
from its omission, if the sentence is more efficient or elegant without it, then we can safely
omit the that. Theodore Bernstein lists three conditions in which we should maintain the
conjunction that:



When a time element intervenes between the verb and the clause: "The boss said
yesterday that production in this department was down fifty percent." (Notice the
position of "yesterday.")
When the verb of the clause is long delayed: "Our annual report revealed that some
losses sustained by this department in the third quarter of last year were worse than
previously thought." (Notice the distance between the subject "losses" and its verb,
"were.")
When a second that can clear up who said or did what: "The CEO said that Isabel's
department was slacking off and that production dropped precipitously in the fourth
quarter." (Did the CEO say that production dropped or was the drop a result of what he
said about Isabel's department? The second that makes the sentence clear.)
Authority for this section: Dos, Don'ts & Maybes of English Usage by Theodore Bernstein.
Gramercy Books: New York. 1999. p. 217. Examples our own.
Beginning a Sentence with Because
Somehow, the notion that one should not begin a sentence with the subordinating
conjunction because retains a mysterious grip on people's sense of writing proprieties. This
might come about because a sentence that begins with because could well end up a fragment
if one is not careful to follow up the "because clause" with an independent clause.

Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communications industry.
When the "because clause" is properly subordinated to another idea (regardless of the
position of the clause in the sentence), there is absolutely nothing wrong with it:

Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communications industry, the postal
service would very much like to see it taxed in some manner.
Correlative Conjunctions
Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative
conjunctions. They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated
as grammatically equal.



She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm.
Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be."
Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.
Correlative conjunctions sometimes create problems in parallel form. Click HERE for help with
those problems. Here is a brief list of common correlative conjunctions.
both . . . and
not only . . . but also
not . . . but
either . . . or
neither . . . nor
whether . . . or
as . . . as
Conjunctive Adverbs
The conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a
result are used to create complex relationships between ideas. Refer to the section on Coherence:
Transitions Between Ideas for an extensive list of conjunctive adverbs categorized according to
their various uses and for some advice on their application within sentences (including punctuation
issues).