Download Biology 393 Midterm Review

Biology 393 Final Review
Monday, June 13
9:45 am- 11:15 am
Chapter 35, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16
Format:
The test will consist of multiple choice, true/false, matching, diagram identification
questions, and punnett square problems.
What To Study:
Study all notes, old quizzes, and old tests as the final will most likely come from
them.
Vocabulary terms to know:
Pulse
Capillary
Vein
Plasma
Platelet
blood pressure
gene
chromosome
chromatin
histone
chromatid
centromere
cancer
mitosis
interphase
Asexual Reproduction
Gamete
Zygote
Diploid
Haploid
Homologous chromosomes
Autosomes
Crossing-over
Sperm
Ovum
Trait
Allele
Dominant recessive
Genotype
Phenotype
Homozygous
Heterozygous
Probability
Generation
Punnett square
Pedigree
Gene
DNA
Histone
Nucleotide
Make sure you know the diagrams of the:
 Heart Diagram
 Respiratory Pathway
 Cell Cycle
 Mitosis
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Semi-conservative
Codon
DNA Replication
RNA
Nucleotide
DNA
Gradualism
Extinction
PunctuatedEquilibrium
Coevolution
Artificial Selection
Adaptation
Homologous
Speciation
Adaptive Radiation
Cell Cycle
Cytokinesis
Meiosis
DNA structure
Topics:
Chapter 35 Circulatory & Respiratory System
 Circulatory system – what is its function
 Heart, blood, blood vessels – how does structure relate to function
 Systemic vs. Pulmonary pathways
 Types of Blood Vessels: Veins, arteries, capillaries
 Components of Blood – plasma and blood cells
 Problems of the circulatory system
 Lymphatic System – what is its function
 Respiratory system – what is its function
 Breathing process – what happens, when, and where
 Organs of the respiratory system - The nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,bronchioles and
lungs
 Know the pathway of air
Chapter 10 Cell Cycle/Mitosis
 In most cases, living things grow by producing more cells.
There are two main reasons why cells divide:
1. The larger a cell gets, the more demands it places on its DNA.
2. As a cell gets larger, it has more trouble moving enough nutrients (food) and
wastes across its cell membrane.
 Cell division- process by which a cell divides into two new daughter cells
Chromosomes
 Structures that carry genetic information (DNA)
- Made up of  DNA and protein (histones)
- Humans have  46 total (23 pairs)
 While the cell is “resting”, you cannot see the chromosomes. (During Interphase)
 DNA is unwound (Not organized)
Called chromatin
 While the cell is dividing(M phase of cell Cycle), you can see the chromosomes
 It is wound up
Made of two sister chromatids connected by a centromere
 A cell must copy its genetic information (DNA) before cell division
begins.
 Each daughter cell then gets a complete copy of that information.
 Prokaryotes- cell division is known as binary fission
 Eukaryotes- cell division occurs in two main stages:
Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Mitosis- the division of the nucleus
Cytokinesis- the division of the cytoplasm
Cell cycle- is a series of events cells go through as they grow and divide.
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During the cell cycle, a cell grows, prepares for division, and divides to form two
daughter cells. Each daughter cell then begins the cycle again.
The phases of the cell cycle include interphase and cell division
Interphase- is divided into three phases: G1, S, and G2
 During G1 phase, cells increase in size and make new proteins and organelles.
 In the S phase, replication (copying) of chromosomes (DNA) takes place.
 During the G2 phase, many of the organelles and molecules needed for cell division
are produced.
Cell Division (M phase) – includes mitosis and cytokinesis
Biologists divide the events of mitosis into four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase.
1. Prophase:
• Longest of the four phases
• Appearance of chromosomes
– Creation of sister chromatids
– Attached at the centromere
• Nucleus undergoes several changes
Nuclear membrane begins to breakdown
• Spindle begins to form
Series of microtubules that span the cell
Purpose is to pull chromatids apart
• Chromosomes attach to the spindle at the centromere
• In animals, spindle is created by the centriole
• In plants, spindle is created between the cell wall
Plants do not have centrioles
2. Metaphase
• Shortest phase of mitosis
Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
3. Anaphase
• Duplicated chromosomes separate from each other
• The paired chromatids split at the centromere cause the two to move to opposite ends
• ends when the chromosomes stop moving when the reach the opposite side
4. Telophase
• Microtubules of spindle begin to break apart
• chromosomes at each pole (end) begin to spread out
• Nuclear envelope forms around the chromosomes - forming 2 distinct nuclei
• Nucleoli reappears
• Cell begins to divide
• Cytokinesis: Process of the cytoplasm dividing
• In animalsthe cell pinches in at the middle to create two new cells
• In plants a cell plate is created in the middle of the cell
After Cytokinesis is complete, each cell; enters the G1 stage of interphase!
 Cell growth and division depend on protein signals and other environmental signals
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Feedback signals at key checkpoints in the cell cycle can delay or trigger the next
phase of the cell cycle.
Three Main Checkpoints in the cell cycle: G1, G2, and Mitosis Checkpoint
Cancer is a group of severe and sometimes fatal diseases that are caused by
uncontrolled cell growth
Cancer cells do not respond to the signals that regulate the growth of most cells
Chapter 11 Reproduction & Meiosis
Asexual Reproduction: a single parent passes a complete copy of its genetic information to
each of its offspring
 An individual formed by asexual reproduction is genetically identical to its parent
 Remember prokaryotes reproduce asexually by a kind of cell division called binary
fission
Sexual Reproduction: two parents give genetic material to produce offspring that are
genetically different from their parents.
 Each parent produces a reproductive cell, called a gamete
 Fertilization: process when a gamete from one parent (egg) and gamete from other
parent (sperm) unite resulting in a cell called a zygote
 Because both parents give genetic material, the offspring has traits of both parents but
is not exactly like either parent
Germ Cells: cells that are specialized for sexual reproduction
 Only germ cells can produce gametes
Somatic Cells: body cells, do not participate in sexual reproduction
Chromosome Number
 Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes
 Each chromosome has thousands of genes that play an important role in determining
how an organism develops and functions
IMPORTANT: In humans, each cell has two copies of 23 chromosomes for a total of 46. You
get one copy of 23 from mom and the other copy from dad during fertilization.
 Diploid (2n): a cell that has two sets of chromosomes
 (example: somatic (body) cell 2n = 46)
 Haploid (n): a cell that has one set of chromosomes
 (example: human gametes n = 23 chromosomes)
Homologous Chromosomes: are chromosomes that are similar in size, in shape, and in kinds of
genes that they contain
 Each chromosome in a homologous pair comes from one of the two parents
 In humans, one set of 23 chromosomes come from the mother, the other 23
chromosomes come from the father
 Homologous chromosomes can carry different forms of a gene. For example, in a
homologous pair (2 chromosomes)for the gene eye color, on dad’s chromosome he
has the form of the gene for blue eyes, on mom’s chromosome she has the form of the
gene for brown eye’s
Autosomes: are chromosomes with genes that do not determine the sex of the individual
 Humans have 44 autosomes
Sex chromosomes: are chromosomes that contain the genes that determine the sex of an
individual.
 Humans have 2 sex chromosomes, either X and Y
 Human males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (XY)
 Human females have two X chromosomes (XX)
Meiosis: the production of gametes, form of cell division that produces daughter cells with
half the number of chromosomes that are in the parent cell
 Diploid (2n) to Haploid (n)
 Meiosis involves two divisions of the nucleus- meiosis I and meiosis II
 During meiosis, a diploid cell goes through two divisions to form four haploid cells
 Mitosis produces cells that are used during growth, development, repair, and asexual
reproduction. Meiosis makes cells that enable an organism to reproduce sexually and
it only happens in reproductive structures.
 Meiosis only occurs within reproductive organs (male testes, female ovaries)
Meiosis I: homologous chromosomes are separated
Prophase I
• Homologuous Chromosomes pair up
• Nuclear membrane, nucleolus disappears
• Spindle fibers form, centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell
• 4 chromosomes (tetrads)
• Crossing-over occurs
– Exchange between homologous chromosomes
– result more possibilities/combinations
Metaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes line up on the equator
• Spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes
Anaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes separate
• Pulled by spindle fibers to each end of the cell
Telophase I
• Cell pinches in and the cell divides
• Homologous chromosomes are separated
• Nucleolus and nuclear membrane reforms
• Spindles disappear
• 2 new cell’s are formed each 2 chromosomes in each cell
Meiosis II: sister chromatids are separated
 Meiosis II occurs in the 2 new cell’s formed
Prophase II
• Nuclear membrane, nucleolus disappears
• Spindle fibers form, centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell
Metaphase II
• Chromosomes attach to the spindle
• lineup on the equator
Anaphase II
• Sister chromatids separate
• Pulled by spindle fibers to opposite parts of the cell
Telophase II
• Cell pinches in and divides
• Nucleolus and nuclear membrane reforms
• Spindles disappear
• Creates 4 new cells, each with two chromosomes
Result of Meiosis is 4 haploid cells (genetic variation due to crossing-over)
Formation of Gametes
D. Gamete Formation
Unequal
division of
cytoplasm
1. Males  4 sperm formed
2. Females  1 egg formed (larger)
and 3 polar bodies (smaller)
a.  only the egg is used in reproduction
Mitosis vs Meiosis
Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes sets from two (diploid) to one (haploid), Mitosis
conserves the number of chromosome sets
Mitosis produces daughter cells genetically identical to their parent cell and to each other,
Meiosis produces cells that differ genetically from their parent cell and from each other.
Chapter 12 Genetics
 Gregor Mendel- “ Father of Genetics”
 Experimented on Pea plants
 Mendel’s Experiments
 1. Mendel manually  cross pollinated the pea plants in his garden
 2. He used “true-breeding” parents
o a. This meant that those plants  always produced offspring that looked 
identical to the parents
 3. He would cross one type of pea with another
 4. He called the offspring  hybrids
 5. He used seven traits in his experiment
Generation Notation
• a. P gen: Mendel manually fertilized one pea plant with another to produce…
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b. F1 gen: the 1st filial generation
– i. He let these offspring self-pollinate to produce…
• c.  F2 gen: the 2nd filial generation
Mendel’s Conclusions
A. Factors (genes) occur in pairs
– For each characteristic there are two factors (genes), these may be the same or
different.
– Mendel’s factors are called alleles
– “Alleles” =  different forms of the same gene
– Example Tt
B. Principle of Dominance and Recessiveness
– If the factors are the same, that is what shows. If the factors are different,
the dominant (stronger) factor will hide the recessive (weaker) factor.
– Biologists use symbols to refer to dominant and recessive traits
-A capital letter, such as “T” for tall, is always used to represent the
dominant trait. The recessive trait is represented by the lower case letter, for
example “t” means short.
– For example: plant height
T-dominant (capital letter)
t- recessive (lowercase letter)
C. Principle of Segregation
– During the making of gametes (sex cells), each pair of alleles is separated and
each gamete has an equal chance of receiving either one of the alleles.
– This means that when the gametes combine in fertilization the offspring receives
one factor for a given trait from each parent.
D. Principle of Independent Assortment
– Factors for different characteristics are distributed to gametes independently.
– Shuffling of factors explains variations and why offspring differ from their
parents
- For example, the alleles for seed color (Y and y) can “mix and match” with the
alleles for seed shape (R and r). So, round seeds may or may not be yellow.
Genotype
a. The actual  genes (DNA) you have for a trait
– a. TT- homozygous dominant
– b. Tt- heterozygous
– c. tt- homozygous recessive
b. The letters represent actual genes inherited (one from each parent)
Phenotypes
– a. actual appearance
– b. think PHoto- PHeno
– c. use the genotype to figure out Phenotype
If T is the allele for tallness and t is the allele for a dwarf plant:
– a. TT-  tall plant
– b. Tt-  tall plant
– c. tt-  dwarf plant
Punnett Squares
-Be able to complete simple monohybrid crosses (use punnett square tutorial)
-Be able to complete dihybrid crosses (use Dihybrid Cross tutorial)
-Be able to complete sex-linked punnett squares
Pedigree: a diagram that shows the occurrence of a genetic trait in several generations of a family
-Be able to read a pedigree chart
-Know basic symbols of a pedigree chart For example:
Male
Female
Marriage
Affected
Male
Vertical line connect parents to offspring
1. Incomplete Dominance
In some cases, neither allele truly dominates over the other.
-No allele is really dominant or recessive
The heterozygous genotype shows a MIX of the two traits.
Example- Four O’Clocks
– R- gene for red flowers, W- gene for white flowers:
– RR- red, WW- white, RW- pink
2. Codominance
In some cases, both alleles are dominant.
-No allele is really recessive.
The heterozygous genotype shows BOTH of the two traits.
Example- Chicken feathers
B- gene for black feathers, W- gene for white feathers:
BB- black, WW- white,
BW- “erminette” Black and White!
3. Multiple Alleles
Many genes have more than just two alleles for a trait
Remember, you can still only have 2 alleles at a time.
It is still just ONE gene, but lots of possibilities
Type A Blood – IAi, IAIA
Example: Blood Type
Type O Blood – ii
4. Polygenic Traits
Type B Blood – IBi, IBIB
Many traits result from the interaction of several
Type AB Blood – IAIB
genes.
(codominance)
-ultiple genes, perhaps on different
chromosomes even, produce one phenotype
Affected
Female
Polygenic traits can produce a large range of phenotypes
Examples: human skin color (at least 4 genes), human eye color, human height
Chapter 13 DNA, RNA, & Proteins
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Know the components and structure of DNA (double helix)
o What makes up the sides (backbone) of the DNA ladder- sugar (deoxyribose) and
phosphate backbone
o What makes up the rungs of the DNA ladder –nitrogen bases (A,T,C,or G)
Identify the three parts of a nucleotide- phosphate, 5-carbon sugar, nitrogen base
Identify which bases are pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine) and which bases are purines
(guanine and adenine)
Know the base-pairing rules (adenine always pairs with thymine, and cytosine always
pairs with guanine)
Know the following individuals and their contributions to the discovery of DNA as
genetic material: Erwin Chargaff, Rosalind Franklin, James Watson, and Francis Crick
Describe how DNA coils into a chromosome shape
o histones, nucleosomes, coils, supercoils, chromatin, chromosomes
Understand how DNA is replicated (copied)
o Identify what enzymes are involved and explain their functions
-Helicase- unzips DNA
-DNA polymerase- Adds bases complementary to template strand and
“Proofreads” and correct new double strand DNA
o Explain why it is called semi-conservative replication based on the resulting DNA
molecules formed- New DNA molecule formed is made of ½ old DNA coding for
½ new DNA
o When during the cell cycle DNA replicates (Interphase, specifically S phase)
Structure of RNA: Single stranded made of nucleotides (A,U,C,G)
nitrogen-base that RNA has and DNA does not is called Uracil
Describe each type of RNA:
-tRNA (Transfer RNA)- transfers amino acids to the ribosome, matches amino acids
to mRNA
-rRNA (ribosomal RNA)- makes up the structure of a ribosome
-mRNA (messenger RNA)- carries information from DNA to ribosomes
Process of transcription: DNA codes for RNA takes place at the nucleus
A codon is a three nitrogen bases of a RNA that codes for a particular amino acid
Process of translation: RNA codes for Proteins takes place at the ribosome
Structure in the cell are proteins made at (Hint: rRNA makes this structure)-Ribosomes
An anticodon is a region of a transfer RNA is a sequence of three bases that are
complementary to a codon in the messenger RNA. During translation, the bases of the
anticodon form complementary base pairs with the bases of the codon.
Chapter 16 Evolution
 Evolution means Change over time
 Charles Darwin is the “Father of Evolution”
 Charles Darwin’s famous voyage is called the Voyage of the Beagle
 Explain Artificial Selection: The human practice of breeding animals or plants that have
certain desired traits
 Explain Thomas Malthus “Struggle for Existence”: Population has the potential to increase
faster than their food supply.
 Explain both parts of Jean Baptiste de Lamarck’s theory of evolution?
– Use and Disuse: The more a body part was used, the larger it got and vice versa
– Acquired Characteristics: Characteristics acquired during an organisms lifetime
can be passed to their offspring
 Define Natural Selection: The process by which individuals that are better adapted to their
environment survive and reproduce more successfully than less well adapted individuals
do; a theory to explain the mechanism of evolution.
 Describe the four steps that summarize Natural Selection.
1. Overproduction: Every population is capable of producing more offspring than
can possibly survive.
2. Variation: Variation exists within every population. Much of this variation is in
the form of inherited traits.
3. Selection: In a given environment, having a particular trait can make
individuals more or less likely to survive and have successful offspring. So, some
individuals leave more offspring than others do.
4. Adaptation: Inherited trait that makes an individual more favorable. Over time,
those traits that improve survival and reproduction will become more common.
 “fitness” means those organisms who produce offspring
 The four types of evidence of evolution:
1. The Fossil Record
2. Anatomy
3. Embryology
4. Biochemistry
 law of superposition: States that successive layers of rock or soil were deposited on top of
one another by wind or water
-Lowest layer, in a cross section of Earth is oldest
-Top layer, is most recent
-Fossils within a single stratum are of the same approximate age
 Explain the three types of evidence of evolution from anatomy.
-Homologous: Are body parts made out of the same basic components (parts) but used
for a different purpose and show a distant relationship.
-Analogous: Are body parts that serve the same purpose but are built differently, and do
not indicate common ancestry
-Vestigial: Organs that seem to have no useful purpose, but must once have been
functional, A body part not used anymore but still remains in the organism
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Explain the five processes by which inherited traits change over time. (microevolution)
-Natural Selection: The process by which individuals that are better adapted to their
environment survive and reproduce more successfully than less well
adapted individuals do; a theory to explain the mechanism of evolution.
-Migration: is the movement of individuals into, out of, or between populations
-Mate Choice: ability to choose your mate or choice is made for you
-Mutation: any change in DNA
-Genetic Drift: the random change in allele frequency in a population
 Macroevolution
-Convergent Evolution: When unrelated organisms come to resemble one another
Ex: Fish and Marine Mammels
-Coevolution: Organisms that are closely connected to one another by ecological
interactions may evolve together
Ex: Honey bee and Flower- Process of Pollination
-Adaptive Radiation: The evolution of several different species from one common
species
Ex: Darwin’s 13 finches all evolved from one common species of finch
 Describe the two models of the rate of evolution.
-Punctuated Equilibrium: is the idea that long, stable periods of “organism equilibrium”
are interrupted by brief periods of rapid change.
-Gradualism: is the idea that evolution occurs slowly and steadily over time
 Speciation: the formation of new species as a result of evolution
 Describe the three patterns of natural selection.
-Directional Selection: When individuals at one end of the cure have higher fitness than
individuals in the middle or at the other end
-Stabilizing Selection: When individuals near the center of the curve have higher fitness than
individuals at either end of the curve
-Disruptive Selection: When individuals at the upper and lower ends of the curve have higher
fitness than individuals near the center Look at Diagrams on page 409
in textbook
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