Download 4 Atmosphere and Climate in the Northern Cape

Northern Cape
State of the Environment Report 2004
Atmosphere and Climate Specialist Report
Northern Cape
State of the Environment Report 2004
Atmosphere and Climate Specialist Report
Final Version
Prepared for:
Department of Tourism, Environment &
Conservation
Private Bag X6102
Kimberley
8300
Project Manager: Abe Abrahams
January 2005
Prepared by:
Riëtha Oosthuizen and Juanette John
CSIR Environmentek
P O Box 17001
Congella
4013
This report forms part of a series of specialist reports produced for the 2004
Northern Cape State of the Environment Report.
The production of this report was made possible with a generous donation from the
National Department of Environmental Affairs & Tourism through the Norwegian
Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD).
Table of Contents
1
Background ................................................................................................................... 1
2
Introduction to Atmosphere and Climate ..................................................................... 2
3
Atmosphere and Climate Issues in the Northern Cape ................................................. 2
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
4
Atmosphere and Climate in the Northern Cape ............................................................ 6
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
5
Asbestos .................................................................................................................... 2
Renewable energy...................................................................................................... 3
Climate change .......................................................................................................... 4
Air quality .................................................................................................................. 4
Resource management ............................................................................................... 5
Rehabilitation of asbestos mines ................................................................................. 6
Use of renewable energy ............................................................................................ 8
Climate change as indicated by changes in weather patterns ........................................ 9
Particulate matter concentrations .............................................................................. 11
Effectiveness of resource management ...................................................................... 13
Responses ................................................................................................................... 14
5.1
5.2
5.3
International responses ............................................................................................ 14
5.1.1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) ................ 14
5.1.2 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer ......................... 14
National responses ................................................................................................... 15
5.2.1 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996 ............................ 15
5.2.2 Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act, Act 45 of 1965 ....................................... 15
5.2.3 White Paper on Renewable Energy .................................................................. 15
5.2.4 National Environmental Management: Air Quality Bill ........................................ 15
Provincial responses ................................................................................................. 16
5.3.1 Northern Cape Provincial Asbestos Forum ........................................................ 16
6
Summary of Atmosphere and Climate ........................................................................ 16
7
References .................................................................................................................. 17
8
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... 20
2004 NC SoER – Atmosphere and Climate Specialist Report 1 of 7
1
BACKGROUND
The Northern Cape Department of Tourism, Environment & Conservation (DTEC) (formerly
the Department of Agriculture, Land Reform, Environment and Conservation (DALEC))
appointed CSIR to compile the 2004 Northern Cape State of the Environment (SoE) Report.
The project process was divided into three phases, namely:



Phase 1: Issues identification;
Phase 2: Selection of Key Environmental Indicators; and
Phase 3: Compilation of the 2004 SoE Report.
During this process, both specialists and stakeholders were given the opportunity to
contribute to the project. Phase 1 entailed the selection of key environmental issues,
described as topics of strategic concern that will influence the environmental sustainability of
the province. A literature review of relevant and available information sources on the
Northern Cape environment was used to create a preliminary list of key environmental
issues, which was reviewed at a stakeholder workshop convened in Kimberley on 9
December 2003. The broad key environmental issues were prioritised and related issues
were highlighted, forming the final list of key environmental issues that was sent out for
stakeholder comment.
The broad key environmental issues identified in Phase 1 were then used as the basis for
the development of a set of key environmental indicators in Phase 2. Specialist input was
used to develop a proposed set of indicators. These environmental indicators, like the
environmental issues, were grouped into broader categories, called ‘themes’. Although not
every environmental issue listed has an indicator associated with it, the indicators selected
for a theme provide the general understanding of the particular theme and allow the reader
to gain insight into environmental trends within that theme.
The draft set of key environmental indicators from Phase 2 was presented at a stakeholder
workshop in Kimberley on 19 January 2004. During the workshop, stakeholders were given
the task of reviewing and finalising the indicators for either one or two themes. A handout
of questions regarding the relevance and practicality of each indicator was used to guide the
group discussions. Comments and suggestions as well as details of additional data sources
were captured in answer sheets by a member of each group, and shared in the feedback
session that followed. The finalised set of key environmental indicators was sent out for
stakeholder comment.
Phase 3 of the project involved the compilation of the SoER, where each of the themes was
investigated through a separate specialist study. Specialists were involved in compiling the
draft studies, which were then subjected to a review. During this phase the specialists
made use of the environmental indicators in their theme to generate an understanding of
the complex interactions occurring in the Northern Cape environment. These individual
specialist reports will be used to compile the popular and web versions of the 2004 Northern
Cape SoER. This document provides the results of one of these specialist studies. It
represents only one of a series of seven specialist reports produced for this project.
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2
INTRODUCTION TO ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE
The atmosphere consists of nitrogen, oxygen and other gases, in a layer that envelopes the
earth and can be considered the ‘lungs’ of the planet. The atmosphere is important as a
planetary life-support system, and plays a critical role in the long-term health of human
beings (CEC, 1997). Anything that disturbs the normal chemical balance of the atmosphere
can be considered pollution. Pollution can be naturally caused (for example by forest fires)
and is also caused by anthropogenic (man-made) activities (such as the burning of fossil
fuels).
Pollutants, once emitted into the atmosphere, recognise no geographical or political
boundaries, and their destination will depend on their physical and chemical characteristics,
together with the prevailing meteorological conditions (CEC, 1997). Activities in the Province
which might lead to increased air pollution include mining, a few industries, crop spraying
and domestic fuel burning.
Some atmospheric gases (such as carbon dioxide) trap reflected heat from the sun thus
keeping the earth warm. This is known as the natural greenhouse effect. However,
anthropogenic activities (such as fossil fuel burning) increase the natural concentrations of
these greenhouse gases, thereby enhancing the greenhouse effect. This is known as global
warming. The effect of global warming is the global increase of surface temperatures
leading ultimately to climate change. Global surface temperatures have increased at a rate
of over 0.15 ºC per decade since 1976 (IPCC, 2001). Climate change prediction models
show the possibility of an increase in aridity in the western regions of South Africa (including
the Northern Cape). This aridity increase may result in changes in vegetation and crop
production, amongst other things (Leuci and Ramsay, 1999).
Apart from a narrow strip of winter-rainfall area along the coast, the Northern Cape is a
semi-arid region with little summer rainfall. The weather conditions are extreme, with cold
and frost in winter and extreme heat in summer (Burger, 2002).
3
ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE ISSUES IN THE NORTHERN CAPE
3.1 Asbestos
Asbestos is the collective mineralogical term given to a group of six different fibrous
minerals (amosite, chrysotile, crocidolite, and the fibrous varieties of tremolite, actinolite and
anthophyllite) that occur naturally in the environment. Asbestos minerals have long,
separable fibres that are strong, flexible enough to be spun and woven, and are heat
resistant. Because of these characteristics, asbestos has been used for a wide range of
products, including building materials, automobile parts and heat resistant fabrics (ACGIH,
2001; ATSDR, 2001). Asbestos fibres enter the air from the breakdown of natural deposits
or man-made asbestos products. Fibres may remain suspended in the air for a long time,
and can be carried a fair distance by the wind before settling. Asbestos fibres are not able
to move through soil, are not broken down to other compounds, and will remain virtually
unchanged over long periods of time (ATSDR, 2001).
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Inhalation of high levels of asbestos fibres over several years may result in scar-like tissue in
the lungs and pleural membrane. This disease is called asbestosis and is usually found in
workers exposed to asbestos. People with asbestosis have difficulty breathing, often have a
cough, and in severe cases the heart may be enlarged. It is a serious disease and can
eventually lead to disability and death. Mesothelioma, associated with asbestos, is cancer of
the pleural membrane (ATSDR, 2001).
There are currently no operational asbestos mines in the Northern Cape. Asbestos mines
flourished in the 1970’s because of the demand for asbestos, the rich deposits of crocidolite
in particular (blue asbestos), and the availability of labour. At the time asbestos mining was
still active in South Africa, five percent of asbestos used in the United States was imported
from South Africa (ACGIH, 2001). The ‘Cape Crocidolite Field’ extends about 400 kilometres
in a northerly direction from just south of Prieska, through Kuruman to the Botswana border
(DME, 2004).
In the Northern Cape asbestos is still perceived as an important issue because of the many
unrehabilitated mine dumps that still have the potential to pollute the environment, and
therefore cause asbestosis or mesothelioma. The public still has access to some of these
dumps, and some individuals recover the asbestos for resale as there is apparently still a
market for it (Du Plooy, pers comm., 2003). In Prieska about 5 new cases (out of a
population of about 15 000) of mesothelioma are diagnosed annually although the mines in
the area have been closed since 1979 (Smith, pers comm., 2004).
Secondary impacts of asbestos pollution are likely to occur in the Northern Cape, considering
the use of materials contaminated with asbestos for a variety of purposes, including school
playgrounds and sports fields (e.g. long jump pit), roads and buildings (Brown University,
2001). Rehabilitation of some roads around the Kuruman area will take place in the near
future (Olivier, pers comm., 2004).
3.2 Renewable energy
Broadly defined, renewable energy sources are those sources of energy arising from natural
processes, and are regularly replenished (Sherman, 2001). The sun is the primary
renewable energy source. Solar energy can be utilised directly as heat or light, as well as a
secondary form of energy through its interaction with the natural environment. Other forms
of renewable energy include wind energy, hydropower, ocean-generated energy and bioenergy.
Wind-power potential is generally good along the coast with mean annual speeds greater
than 4ms-1, compared to moderate wind speeds of 3-4 ms-1 in the interior of the Province,
and less than 3 ms-1 in the interior of South Africa (Diab, 1995). As South Africa is classified
as being a generally dry country, it is seen to have little perennial hydropower potential
(Burger and Beard, 1998). Most areas in South Africa average more than 2 500 hours of
sunshine per year, with average daily solar radiation levels ranging from 4.5-6.5 kWh/m2
(Burger and Beard, 1998), which is relatively high. The area of the Northern Cape that
borders on the Orange River and Namibia boasts the highest solar radiation intensity
anywhere in southern Africa (Sherman, 2001). Solar energy is therefore likely to be the most
viable alternative energy source for the Northern Cape.
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3.3 Climate change
Greenhouse gases occur in the troposphere (or lower atmosphere) and are responsible for
causing the greenhouse effect or global warming. These gases include ozone, methane,
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon dioxide, water vapour and nitrous oxides (Enviropaedia,
2002). South Africa’s contribution to GHG emissions is relatively small on a global scale.
However, on a per capita basis it is well above global averages and those of other middleincome developing countries. The energy sector in South Africa is a major source of GHG
because of the heavy reliance on coal for electricity generation, the Sasol oil-from-coal
process, and the scarcity of renewable energy resources such as hydro- and wind energy
(Burger, 2002).
There is significant evidence that the increase in these GHG is having an effect on climatic
conditions (Enviropaedia, 2002). Evidence of biological impacts of climate change across
the world is accumulating (Foden, 2002). In the Northern Cape, findings from one study
strongly suggest that the range of Aloe dichotoma has begun to respond to climate-induced
stress, indicating that biodiversity in the region may be under threat from climate change
(Foden, 2002).
Climate change may result in an increase in natural disasters, thus necessitating the need
for disaster management. The National Disaster Management Centre was established in
1999 by the Department of Provincial and Local Government (DPLG) and has since been
constituted to promote an integrated and co-ordinated system of disaster management. This
does not include information on climate change per se but will provide information on
disasters such as floods that may provide an indication of climate change (Killian, pers
comm., 2003).
3.4 Air quality
Certain air pollutants are considered ‘classic’ air pollutants because they are emitted in large
quantities in most countries and they have adverse effects on human health and crops
(WHO, 1999). Most countries therefore have guidelines or standards for these pollutants
and their concentrations may be used as indicators of the quality of the air in an area.
These pollutants normally include sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon
monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM), lead (Pb) and ozone (O3). The main health effects
associated with these are related to the respiratory system, except for CO, which affects the
central nervous system (WHO, 1999).
Ozone is a secondary pollutant while the others are primary pollutants emanating from
industry, motor vehicles and fossil fuel combustion. There are no major industries in the
Province emitting NO2 or SO2, except for a few open kiln brickworks (Table 1). Only 0.6%
of Northern Cape households use coal as domestic fuel as it is far from the coalfields of
South Africa. SO2 concentrations are therefore not considered to be an issue in the
Province. However, many households (18%) do use paraffin (Statistics South Africa, 2003),
indicating that indoor NO2 concentrations could be a potential issue. In South Africa, about
20 to 30 million people are estimated to be exposed to indoor air pollution from domestic
fuel use in poorly ventilated places (Enviropaedia, 2002).
The main anthropogenic sources of ambient particulate matter in the Northern Cape are the
mining industry and the scheduled processes mentioned in Table 1. Pollution ‘hot spots’ will
therefore be associated with these activities.
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The Sishen Mine near Kathu is the biggest source of iron ore in South Africa. Zinc and lead
are mined at Aggeneys. The Province is also rich in asbestos, manganese, fluorspar, semiprecious stones and marble (Burger, 2002).
The main industries with scheduled processes in the Northern Cape are those indicated in
Table 1. These industries report directly to the dedicated pollution control officer at DEAT.
Table 1: Location and type of industry in the Northern Cape (du Plooy, pers
comm., 2004)
Location
Ulco - about 40 km from
Barkley-West on the road
to Lime Acres
Lime Acres and Daniëlskuil
Type of industry
Cement factory
Postmasburg
Foundries (2)
Brickworks
Brickworks (closed oven)
Foundry
Brickworks
Kimberley
Olifantshoek
Kuruman
Warrenton
Upington
Near Mamatwan (about 60
km north west of
Kuruman)
Lime factories
Medium incinerators
Crematorium
Medium incinerator
Carcass incinerator
Sinter plant
Comment
Emits mainly PM
Stack monitoring
conducted by factory
Emits mainly PM
Stack monitoring
conducted by both
factories
Emits mainly PM
Emits PM, SO2 and CO
Emits PM, SO2 and CO
Emits mainly PM
Emits PM SO2 and CO
Emits mainly acid gases
and PM
Emit mainly acid gases
and PM
Emits PM
Sinter plants have bag
filters to prevent emissions
of PM
There is currently no coordinated air pollution monitoring network in the Northern Cape.
Existing monitoring is fragmented as it is mainly done by industries and results are therefore
not readily available.
The use of pesticides for crop spraying is another aspect that could have an impact on air
quality in certain areas of the Northern Cape. The use of pesticides in the production of
food is expanding in South Africa despite an international trend to promote pesticide
reduction (London & Rother 1998). A few thousand farms, each about 25 hectares, are
usually sprayed on a two-weekly basis during the months May to June and September to
October (Fischer, pers comm., 2004). Quantification of exposure in order to determine the
impacts of crop spraying is not possible as no monitoring is done.
3.5 Resource management
According to the Municipal Demarcation Board (2003), the air pollution management
function is poorly performed by Northern Cape Municipalities. This is likely to be the
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perception throughout the Province, and may be the reason why ‘Effectiveness of resource
management’ was raised as an issue in the State of the Environment report.
It must be noted that there are few industries in the Northern Cape, and pollution from the
Province’s mines falls outside the jurisdiction of these Municipalities (mining is the mandate
of the Department of Minerals and Energy).
4
ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE IN THE NORTHERN CAPE
4.1 Rehabilitation of asbestos mines
The indicator ‘Rehabilitation of asbestos mines’ measures the number and location of
unrehabilitated asbestos mine dump sites in the Northern Cape. The indicator addresses the
‘response’ of government to the issue of ‘asbestos’ raised by stakeholders discussed in
Section 3.1. This was done as no ‘state’ information could be found for asbestos pollution.
The indicator therefore monitors the actions taking place to mitigate the impacts of the
previously high demand for asbestos.
Although there are currently no operational asbestos mines in the Northern Cape, and
therefore no occupational exposure, environmental exposure is still a concern as fibres from
unrehabilitated mine dumps can become airborne and may be inhaled by humans. The
concentration of asbestos in ambient air is not known, as no monitoring is currently
undertaken. Very little is known about the impact of asbestos (prevalence of asbestosis and
mesothelioma) in the Northern Cape. The Provincial Department of Health does not keep
any statistics on these diseases, other than those from occupational exposure.
Figure 1 indicates the location of these asbestos mines.
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Figure 1: Location of asbestos mines in the Northern Cape, including rehabilitated, unrehabilitated and partially rehabilitated
mines (Booysen, 2003)
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By May 2001, approximately R50 million had been spent on the rehabilitation of 53
derelict and/or ownerless asbestos mines in the Northern Cape, Limpopo and
Mpumalanga (Burger, 2002). It is expected that another R150 million would be
required to rehabilitate the remaining 68 derelict and/or ownerless asbestos mines.
Although the rehabilitation of these mines will remain a priority for years to come,
attention is also being focused on the rehabilitation of derelict and/or ownerless
coalmines and gold-residue deposits.
Table 2 shows recent statistics on the rehabilitation of mine dumps in the Northern
Cape.
Table 2: State of rehabilitation process of asbestos mines (Booysen, 2003)
Location
Northern Cape
Mpumalanga
Limpopo
Number
Mines
57
14
39
of Number
Dumps
346
90
139
of (%)
Dumps
rehabilitated
42
20
88
Total Cost
(1984-2002)
R 53.2m
R 29.7m
R 39.9m
It is evident from Table 2 that less than half of the asbestos mines in the Northern
Cape have been rehabilitated at a cost of more than R50 million.
The level of confidence in these data are medium to low, it is unknown whether
these data have been verified.
4.2 Use of renewable energy
This indicator measures trends in renewable energy use in the Northern Cape, using
percentage household solar energy use as a proxy. Table 3 indicates the number
and percentage of Northern Cape households using solar energy for cooking, heating
and lighting purposes respectively.
The impacts of global climate change are likely to present a driving force that will
result in the increased use of renewable energy (Sherman, 2001). This change could
be influenced by the cost of non-renewable sources such as electricity and paraffin,
and the availability of sources such as coal. The use of renewable energy will impact
positively on the environment (by reducing greenhouse gases), the economy and
ultimately on quality of life (Sherman, 2001).
Houses and buildings in South Africa are seldom designed for energy efficiency. The
energy characteristics of low-cost housing are particularly bad, resulting in high
levels of energy consumption for space heating in winter. Research has shown that
low-cost housing could be made 'energy smart' through the utilisation of elementary
'solar passive building design' practice, potentially resulting in significant energy
savings (Burger, 2002).
The heating of water, mainly derived from electricity, accounts for a third to half of
the energy consumption in the average household. Switching from electrical to solar
water-heating can have significant economic and environmental benefits. Economic
benefits for homeowners include reduced energy bills, while benefits for the country
include reduced GHG emission (Burger, 2002).
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Table 3: Percentage households per province using solar energy for
domestic purposes (Statistics South Africa, 2003)
Province
Northern Cape
Eastern Cape
Free State
Gauteng
KwaZulu-Natal
Limpopo
Mpumalanga
North West
Western Cape
South Africa
Cooking
Heating
0.20
0.13
0.26
0.21
0.29
0.25
0.27
0.14
0.17
0.22
Lighting
0.15
0.12
0.29
0.16
0.28
0.25
0.29
0.29
0.11
0.21
1.0
0.27
0.29
0.14
0.25
0.27
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.22
As 2001 was the first year that statistics on solar energy use were collected by
Statistics South Africa, no trends can yet be determined (see Table 3). Solar energy
use currently contributes a very small portion of the total energy supply in the
Northern Cape - 18% households are still using paraffin for cooking, while 15.3%
and 28.6% are using wood for cooking and heating respectively (Statistics South
Africa, 2003). This situation is similar for all Provinces. The Northern Cape has,
however, the highest solar energy use for lighting (1.0%) when compared to other
Provinces in the country. In South Africa several projects have been initiated in an
attempt to increase solar energy use, for example the CaBEERE Project (DME, 2003).
In the Sol Plaatje Municipality sun panels were installed in 11 houses as part of an
eco-village pilot project in Galeshewe. The panels made a substantial difference in
energy consumption, but do not appear to be viable because of the large capital
outlay required to install them (Schoeman, pers comm., 2004).
The level of confidence in this data set is medium to high as this data was extracted
from the 2001 Census results published by Statistics South Africa (Statistics South
Africa, 2003).
4.3 Climate change as indicated by changes in weather patterns
This indicator measures the annual temperature and precipitation deviations in an
area relative to a baseline period (1961-1990). Increased levels of greenhouse gases
may lead to an increased surface temperature (Allaby, 1990). This will indirectly
impact on human health as the distribution of certain diseases such as malaria may
expand due to a warmer climate (DEAT, 1999).
The indicator provides an indication of the state of climate change. The trend in
temperature deviations during the period 1991 to 2002 compared to the 1961-1990
baseline period are indicated in Figure 2.
The trend lines in Figure 2 indicate that there were more positive than negative
deviations in temperature since 1991 compared to the 1960-1990-baseline period.
The figure shows that temperatures have potentially increased over the past few
years. Some of the temperature trends were significant, especially in the northern
regions of the Province (Pofadder, Henkries and Twee Rivieren).
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Linear trend in temperature deviation (°C)
1.0
0.6
0.2
-0.2
-0.6
1999
1997
1995
1993
1991
1989
1987
1985
1983
1981
1979
1977
1975
1973
1971
1969
1967
1965
1963
1961
-1.0
Year
Linear (Sutherland)
Linear (Henkries)
Linear (Fraserburg)
Linear (Twee Rivieren)
Linear (Van Wyksvlei)
Linear (Upington)
Linear (Pofadder)
Figure 2: Trend in temperature deviation compared to the 1961-1990
baseline period (Kruger, pers comm., 2004)
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
1999
1997
1995
1993
1991
1989
1987
1985
1983
1981
1979
1977
1975
1973
1971
1969
1967
1965
1963
-40
1961
Linear trend in rainfall deviation (mm)
40
Year
Linear (Sutherland)
Linear (Henkries)
Linear (Fraserburg)
Linear (Vanwyksvlei)
Linear (Upington)
Linear (Pofadder)
Linear (Twee Rivieren)
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Figure 3: Trend in rainfall deviation compared to the 1961-1990 baseline
period (Kruger, pers comm., 2004)
Figure 3 shows the trend in rainfall deviation. No consistent trend in rainfall
deviation could be seen over the measured period. None of the trends indicated in
Figure 3 are significant.
4.4 Particulate matter concentrations
Particulate matter was chosen as the indicator for air quality in the Northern Cape
because of the general lack of industrial processes in the Province, and the presence
of several mining activities.
This indicator measures the concentration of particulate matter (Total Solid
Particulates and PM10), and includes the spatial distribution of hot spots (i.e. the
location of mining activities). It provides a measure of the state of air quality in the
Northern Cape.
The main pressure causing an increase in particulate matter concentrations in the
Northern Cape is the presence of mining activities. Impacts associated with
particulate matter include adverse health effects (depending on chemical composition
and particle size), nuisance effects, damage of materials and reduction in visibility
(EPA, 2003).
Figure 4 indicates the positions of the active mines in the Northern Cape, thus
providing an indication of potential sources of particulate matter. These sources
include iron ore, manganese, diamond, nickel and copper mines. Both surface and
underground mines can lead to air pollution. In surface mining, the actual mining
excavation process leads to dispersion of particulate matter by wind. In the case of
underground mining, mine tailings (waste products) are stored above ground and are
therefore easily dispersed by wind.
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Northern Cape Active Mines
Legend
Ç
Active Mines
Jakkalsdraai
Northern Cape Towns
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
Pofadder
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
Ç Ç
Ç
Kenhardt
Ç Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç
ÇÇ
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Okiep
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
-
Ç
Ç
Upington
Ç
ÇÇ Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
ÇSishen
Bokhara
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Alexander
BayÇ
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Hopetown
Witput
Ç ÇÇÇ
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Ç
Calvinia
Ç
ÇÇ
Sutherland
0
40 80
160
240
320
Kilometers
Figure 4: Location of active mines in the Northern Cape – 2001 (CGS, 2001)
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Almost no information on particulate matter concentrations in the Northern Cape
could be found. The only information that was obtained was concentrations of fallout dust from the Sishen iron ore mine near Kathu (Sishen, 2003). The maximum
fall-out measured at certain sites between April and October 2003 is provided in
Table 4.
Table 4: Maximum fall-out dust at sites close to Sishen iron ore mine
(Sishen, 2003)
Site
Location
Max fall-out Month of year
g/m2/day
Sesheng
Residential area
Eastern border
of mine site
Residential area
Western border
of mine site
Landing strip
about 4km from
site
Town about
7km from site
On site
2.098
29/9 – 27/10/03
Classification
according to
SA guidelines
Very heavy
1.626
29/9 – 27/10/03
Very heavy
1.885
29/9 – 27/10/03
Very heavy
1.538
29/9 – 27/10/03
Very heavy
1.837
29/9 – 27/10/03
Very heavy
Dingleton
Airport
Kathu
HEF Plant
SA guidelines (DEAT, 1998):
Slight = <0.25g/m2/day; Moderate = 0.25-0.5g/m2/day; Heavy = 0.5-1.0g/m2/day; Very heavy = >1.2g/m2/day
It is clear from Table 4 that the dust fall-out in the area is very heavy, that visibility
could be affected and that materials could be soiled. Unfortunately, the data is of
such a limited nature that it is not possible to obtain any trends or spatial distribution
of the pollutant.
The level of confidence in these data are is medium to low; it is unknown whether
the results have been verified.
4.5 Effectiveness of resource management
This indicator provides evidence of the state of air quality management in the
Northern Cape and can be measured in two different ways. Firstly by looking at the
manpower capacity for air pollution management within the Province, and secondly
by looking at the number of municipal Integrated Development Plans (IDPs) that
show air pollution management plans or a dedicated budget for developing an air
pollution management plan.
The need for effective resource management is driven in large part by the presence
of mining and industry in the Northern Cape. As there are few industries in the
Province, the task of air quality management in the industrial sector is not considered
a major one. It should be noted that Local Municipalities have no jurisdiction over
air pollution from mining activities (these fall under the Department of Minerals and
Energy). The task of air pollution management in the mining industry is therefore
not addressed by this indicator.
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For the second measurement of this indicator, a number of findings can be reported
on. According to the Municipal Demarcation Board (MDB, 2003), the Karoo and
Frances Baard District Municipalities are the only District Municipalities rendering an
air pollution function in the Province. However, in the case of the Karoo District
Municipality, there has been neither a budgetary provision for this function in the
2002 / 2003 financial year, nor a staff complement allocated to perform the function
(MDB, 2003).
Furthermore, no Environmental Management Plan is in place
(Slabbert, pers comm., 2004). The Frances Baard District Municipality indicated that
the budget for air pollution formed part of another budget item. It does, however,
have a staff complement of 4 people responsible for air pollution control (MDB,
2003). These individuals are environmental health practitioners responsible for the
functions air pollution control, control of public nuisance, and control of noise
pollution. No Environmental Management Plan addressing air quality is, however, in
place as yet but is in the process of being formalised (Kirsten, pers comm., 2004).
The Siyanda District Municipality does have an Environmental Management Plan in
place (Rupping, pers. comm., 2004) while the Namakwa (Auret, pers comm., 2004)
and Kgalagadi District Municipalities (Swart, pers comm., 2004) are currently in the
process of formalising such a plan.
The level of confidence in the Municipal Demarcation Board data are regarded as
medium to high as inputs were obtained directly from all the Municipalities in the
Northern Cape.
5
RESPONSES
5.1 International responses
5.1.1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) represents
a global agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to prevent/minimise
the impacts of global climate change. The Convention was ratified by South Africa in
1997. As a developing country, South Africa is obliged to report on annual emissions
of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide as a minimum requirement. South
Africa is not currently under any obligation to limit or reduce its greenhouse gas
emissions (UNFCCC, 2001). The Kyoto Protocol text to the UNFCCC was adopted in
1997. South Africa acceded to the Kyoto Protocol in 2002.
5.1.2 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
The Montreal Protocol controls the use and import of ozone-depleting substances in
order to protect the ozone layer. The import of these chemicals is controlled through
a permit system administered by the Departments of Environmental Affairs &
Tourism and Trade & Industry. South Africa’s accession to the Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was approved in 1990 (UNEP, 2004).
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5.2 National responses
5.2.1 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996
Section 24 (a) of the Constitution states that:
“Everyone has the right a) to an environment that is not harmful to their health or well- being; and
b) to have the environment protected, for the benefit of present and future
generations, through reasonable legislative and other measures that i) prevent pollution and ecological degradation;
ii) promote conservation; and
iii) secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources
while promoting justifiable economic and social development” (Republic of
South Africa, 1996).
5.2.2 Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act, Act 45 of 1965
The Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act controls pollution at the source and is
based on ‘best practicable means’. Schedule III of this Act covers atmospheric
pollution by smoke, Schedule IV is related to dust control and Schedule V deals with
air pollution by fumes emitted by vehicles (Republic of South Africa, 1965).
5.2.3 White Paper on Renewable Energy
This White paper was released by the Department of Minerals and Energy in
November 2003. Government’s long-term goal is to establish a renewable energy
industry producing modern energy carriers that will offer a sustainable, fully nonsubsidised alternative to fossil fuels in future. The proportion of final energy
consumption currently provided by renewable energy is mainly as a result of poverty
(e.g. fuelwood and animal waste being used for cooking and heating). The
Government has therefore adopted a medium-term (10-year target) which states
that 10 000 GWh renewable energy contribution to final energy consumption should
be produced mainly from biomass, wind, solar and small-scale hydro by 2013
(Republic of South Africa, 2003).
5.2.4 National Environmental Management: Air Quality Bill
In October 2004, the final mandates and amendments were agreed to and the Air
Quality Bill sent to the President for signature. An effective date has not yet
determined (DEAT, 2004). The practical implications of the Air Quality Act at
national, provincial and local government level are still to be understood.
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5.3 Provincial responses
5.3.1 Northern Cape Provincial Asbestos Forum
The Northern Cape Provincial Asbestos Forum consists of representatives of most
government departments in the Northern Cape, as well as non-governmental
organisations and lawyers. The aim of the Forum is community awareness raising
with respect to asbestos-related diseases and their symptoms.
In addition,
communities are given information related to diagnosis and compensation (Matsipa,
pers comm., 2004).
6
SUMMARY OF ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE
Atmosphere and climate issues in the Northern Cape were identified as:





Asbestos;
Renewable energy sources;
Climate change;
Air quality; and
The management of air resources.
The issue of asbestos was measured by determining the extent of rehabilitation of
asbestos mines, i.e. measuring the number, size and location of unrehabilitated
asbestos mines. Renewable energy was addressed by measuring the use of solar
energy for cooking, heating and lighting purposes. Climate change was measured by
changes in temperature and rainfall over the past 10 years compared to a baseline
period. Particulate matter concentrations were used as an indicator of the air quality
in the Northern Cape, while the effectiveness of resource management was indicated
by the existence of Environmental Management Plans at District Municipality level.
Results indicate that, although there are currently no operational asbestos mines in
the Northern Cape and therefore no current occupational exposure, environmental
exposure to asbestos is still a concern as fibres from mine dumps can potentially
become airborne and inhaled by human beings. Rehabilitation of asbestos mines is a
costly exercise and less than half of the mines in the Province have been
rehabilitated to date (Booysen, 2003; Burger, 2002). Impacts from the secondary
use of asbestos (e.g. on roads or playing fields) is also of concern in the Province
(Brown University, 2004).
The area of the Northern Cape that borders on the Orange River and Namibia boasts
the highest solar radiation intensity anywhere in southern Africa (Sherman, 2001).
This area is therefore ideal for grid-connected solar energy generation. The use of
solar energy was recorded for the first time in the 2001 Census and no trends can
yet be determined. Solar energy use currently contributes a very small portion of the
total energy supply in the Northern Cape (Statistics South Africa, 2003). There is a
national drive to increase the use of technologies making use of solar energy.
Trends in temperature deviations indicate that there were more positive than
negative deviations in temperature since 1991 compared to the 1960-1990 baseline
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period. The temperature has potentially been increasing over the past few years.
Some of the temperature trends were significant, especially in the northern regions.
Rainfall deviations since 1991 in comparison to the 1961-1990 baseline indicate no
significant trend.
Ongoing research on the vegetation in the Northern Cape, focusing specifically on
the Succulent Karoo, strongly suggests that the range of Aloe dichotoma has begun
to respond to climate-induced stress, indicating that the region is under threat from
climate change. This plant species may potentially be a useful indicator of climate
change in the future (Foden, 2002).
Monitoring of particulate matter in the Northern Cape is performed on a fragmented
basis, mostly focussed in and around mining areas, and no co-ordinated provincial
monitoring network exists. No comprehensive assessment of air quality in the
Northern Cape is therefore possible.
As far as resource management is concerned, only Siyanda District Municipality
currently has an Environmental Management Plan in place, with Kgalagadi, Frances
Baard and Namakwa being in the process of formulating such plan. Staff assigned to
the function of air pollution control are also involved in public nuisance control, as
well as noise pollution control. No air pollution monitoring of criteria pollutants is
being performed by any of the municipalities (du Plooy pers comm., 2003), most
likely due to the fact that air pollution is not perceived as an important issue because
of the low number of industries in the Province.
7
REFERENCES
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http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts61.html [29 January 2004].
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Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances. 7th edition.
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Auret, W. 2004. Personal communication. Namakwa District Municipality. March
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Booysen, J. 2003. Lecture by EkoRehab at Wits Medical School, 27 May 2003.
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Burger, D. (ed.) 2002. SA Yearbook. [Online]. Available:
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Council for Geoscience (CGS). 2001. Digital metallogenic map of the Republic of
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Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT). 1998. Maximum allowable
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the Environment Report: Climate and Atmospheric Change. [Online]. Available:
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Department of Minerals and Energy (DME). 2004. Official Website of the Department
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Diab, R. 1995. Wind Atlas of South Africa. Department of Minerals and Energy,
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Du Plooy, C. 2003. Personal communication. DEA&T. November, 2003.
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Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2003. How particulate matter affects the
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Fischer, B. 2003. Personal communication. Francis Baard District Municipality.
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Foden W. 2002. A demographic study of Aloe dichotoma in the succulent Karoo: Are
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Conservation Biology.
Hietkamp, S. 2003. Personal communication. CSIR, Pretoria. November 2003.
IPCC. 2001. The Scientific Basis: Contribution of Working Group 1 to the third
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Killian, G. 2003. Personal communication. Department of Provincial and Local
Government, Pretoria. October 2003.
Kirsten, M. 2004. Personal communication. Frances Baard District Municipality. March
2004.
Kruger, A. 2004. Personal communication. South African Weather Service, Pretoria.
January 2004.
Leuci, R. and Ramsay, P. J. 1999. A Preliminary Assessment of Future Climate
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Environmental. Law Conference on Environmental Justice. UCT April 1998.
Matsipa, M. 2004. Personal communication. Northern Cape Provincial Asbestos
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Municipal Demarcation Board (MDB). 2003. Assessment Of Municipal Powers And
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Olivier, B. 2004. Personal communication. Kgalagadi District Municipality. May 2004.
Republic of South Africa. 1965. The Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act and
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Schoeman, Mr. 2004. Personal communication. Sol Plaatje Municipality. May 2004.
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8
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author/s would like to acknowledge contributions from the following people:





Wendy Foden, National Botanical Institute, Pretoria;
Dr Guy Midgley, National Botanical Institute, Cape Town;
Cornelis Vorster, Council for Geoscience, Pretoria;
Dr Johan Booysen, EkoRehab; and
Mr Kobus Davel; Kumba Resources.
20