Download 1 CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND In this chapter, the

CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
In this chapter, the writer reviews some relevant theories and previous
research that related to the topic of this research. This part presents some theoretical
background to helps the writer of this research. The theoretical background
concerning: grammar include (tenses, subject-verb agreement, and passive voice),
definition of error, and the type of error.
2.1. English Grammar
In general, the grammar of spoken sentence is simpler and less strictly
constructed than the grammar of written sentence. It is difficult to divide a spoken
conversation into separate sentence, and the connections between one clause and
another are less clear because the speaker relies more on the hearer’s understanding
of context and on his ability to interrupt if he fails to understand.
Grammar has various descriptions but they are still in term of rules of
language. According to LeTourneau (2001, p.2-3) “Grammar is discipline that
studies the structure of sentence in human language”. Grammar refers to entire
system of a language: its sounds, syllables, patterns of stress and intonation, rules for
pronunciation and word information, word and sentence meaning. Basically, before
good in speaking, writing, and even reading we should study or govern the grammar.
According to Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (1999, p.2) “More
grammars have focused on structural consideration: cataloguing and describing the
form and meaning of grammatical constructions rather than how they are actually
used in spoken and written discourse”.
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Learning grammar is not just a matter of learning of learning arbitrary,
boring, and unconnected rules, but rather it is learning how to accurately, clearly, and
fluently express meaning in particular contexts. Every grammatical form has a
meaning and a use dimension, as well as its obvious structural features. In English,
learning grammar is divided into several units but in this research the writer only use
tenses, subject-verb agreement, and passive voice.
2.1.1 Tenses
In English, tense is very important because all the events and action
described in a sentence must be in accordance with the time that happened. Tense is
one of the methods of grammar. According to Berry (1987, p.57) “The term tense is
simply means time relationship in his speech by using proper tense of the verb”.
People may not be able to use English well in both writing and speaking without
tenses.
In English Grammar, tense consists of four main tenses: (a) present tense
consists of simple present tense, present continuous tense, present perfect tense, and
present perfect continuous tense. (b) Past tense consists of simple past tense, past
continuous tense, past perfect tense, and past perfect continuous tense. (c) Future
tense consists of present future tense, present future continuous tense, present future
perfect tense, and present future perfect continuous tense. (d) Past future tense
consists of past future tense, past future continuous tense, past future perfect tense
and past future perfect continuous tense.
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The Figure shown bellow will be used in the tense description:
Figure 2.1.1: Tense
Source: Azar (1999, p. 2)
This Figure explains about past time to present time (now) to future time.
The verb uses in past time, present time (now) and future time are different. However
only 5 (five) of tenses which the writer wants to discuss that people usually use in
conversation: simple present tense, present continuous tense, simple past, past
continuous tense, and present perfect.
2.1.1.1 Simple Present Tense
In general, the simple present express events or situations that exist always,
usually, habitually: they exist now, have existed in the past, and probably will exist
in the future. This Figure below will be used in the simple tense description:
Figure 2.1.1.1a: Simple Tense
Source: Azar (1999, p. 2)
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The Figure above explains that simple present tense express events or
situations that exist always, usually, habitually: they exist now, have existed in the
past, and probably will exist in the future.
According to Leech (1975, p.64) “Simple present tense following to the
main ways of referring to something which occurs at the present moment”. This is
the pattern of simple present tense.
Tabel 2.1.1.1: formula of simple present tense.
Source: Quantum English Learner (2009, p.17)
This Figure below will be used the subject in the simple present tense.
Figure 2.1.1.1b: Subject in the simple present tense
Source: Fundamental English Grammar (2007: 249)
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Leech means the present moment such as :
1.
Present state
- Im hungry.
- Do you like coffee?
The state may stretch indefinitely into past and future, and so this use of the
simple present tense applies also to general truth such as the sun rises in the east.
2.
Present event
- I declare the meeting closed.
This use is rather specialized, ebbing limited to formal declarations, sport
commentaries, demonstrations, etc. In most contexts, one rarely has the occasion to
refer to an event begun and ended at the very moment of speech.
3.
Present habit
- He works in London (every day)
It shows that he has a habit of work in London.
2.1.1.2 Present Continuous Tense
Present continuous tense may declare an event or action that immediately in
the future and changing situation. This Figure below will be used in the simple
present continuous tense description:
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Figure 2.1.1.2: Present continues tense
Source: Azar (1999, p. 3)
This Figure explains it is now 11.00. Jerry went to sleep at 10.00 tonight,
and he is still asleep. His sleep began in the past, is in progress at the present time
and probably will continue. Basically, present continuous tense explain an event, act,
or action is in progress at the present time or during a particular time. This is the
pattern of simple present continuous tense.
Table 2.1.1.2: formula of simple present continuous tense.
Source: Quantum English Learning (2009, p. 37)
In present continuous tense, not all the verb use Verb-ing such as verbs of
the sense (involuntary action) which tell something related to our senses (to feel, to
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hear, to see, o taste, to smell, to notice), verbs of emotion and attitudes ( to admire, to
adore, to appreciate, to care or to like, to desire, to fear, etc.) ,verbs of thought or
opinion, and verbs of possession (have/has, belong, own, owe, possess, etc).
Leech adds (1975: p.64) “simple present continuous tense follows the main
ways of referring to something which occurs at the present moment”. Leech adds the
situation of present continuous tense:
1. Temporary Present
- Look, it’s raining!
The meaning of the progressive aspect is limited duration.
2. Temporary Habit
- I’m taking dancing lessons this winter.
The use combines the temporary meaning of the progressive with the
repetitive meaning of the habitual present.
3. Continuous aspect, when it is accompanied by always or a similar
adverb, to convey not temporariness, but continuousness.
- My children are always (=continually) misbehaving.
The use carries with it some feeling of disapproval.
2.1.1.3 Present Perfect
The other tense is present perfect. According to Azar (1999, p.4) “The
present perfect expresses the idea that something happened (or never happened)
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before now, at an unspecified time in the past”. The Figure bellow will be used in
present perfect tense description:
Figure 2.1.1.3: Present perfect tense
Source: Azar (1999: 4)
The Figure explains the verbs used in the present perfect to express a
situation that began in the past and still exists are typically verbs with a static
meaning. This table below describe about the formula of present perfect tense.
Table 2.1.1.3: formula of perfect tense.
Source: Quantum English Learning (2009, p. 55)
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In the present perfect usually, it uses the word such as before, already, ever,
never, yet, at last finally, just, several time, for week, ago, not...yet, and since.
The present perfect also expresses the repetition of an activity before now
and the exact time is not important. According to Leech (1975, p.66) there are four
related uses of the present perfect may be noted:
1. State leading up to the present time.
- That house has been empty for ages.
2. Indefinite event(s) in a period leading up to the present time.
- Have you (ever) been to Florence?
- All my family have had measles ( in the last year)
3. Habit in a period leading up to the present time.
- He has attended lectures regularly (this term)
4. Past event with result in the present time
- The taxi has arrived. ( it’s now here)
2.1.1.4 Simple Past Tense
In this simple past tense, the sentence can be verbal or non verbal with
different formula. Leech (1975, p.65) said that “The past tense is used when the past
happening is related to a definite time in the past”. The Figure bellow will be used in
simple past tense description
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Figure 2.1.1.4: simple past tense
Source: English Fundamental Grammar (2007: 273)
This Figure explains the event that began in the past and ended in the past.
So, the event only happened in the past and there is no impact in the present and in
the future.
According to Azar (1999, p.2) “Simple past tense is at one particular time in
the past, this happened. It began and ended in the past. In this simple past tense, the
sentence can be verbal or non verbal with different formula”. The table below
describes about formula of simple past tense:
Tabel 2.1.1.4: formula of simple past tense.
Source: Quantum English Learning (2009, p.85)
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In these cases, the tense of the verb in the indirect quote is adapted to agree
with the past tense of the reporting verb. When reporting the speech of others, there
can be accompanying shifts in the person of pronouns.
Example:
- A girl at work said she worked at Woolworth.
In direct speech: I work at Woolworth.
Leech (1975:p.66) adds the past which may be identified by:
1. A past tense adverbial in the same sentence.
- Haydn was born in 1972
2. The preceding language context.
- Joan has become engaged: it took us completely by surprise. ( Here the
past tense took is used, because the event has already been identified in the
first clause).
3. The context outside language.
- Did the postman bring any letters? (Here we can use the past tense
without language context, because it is understood that the post-man calls
at a given time the day).
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2.1.1.5 Past Continuous Tense
Sometimes, the past continuous is used both parts of a sentence when two action are
in progress simultaneously. The following Figure will be used in past continuous
tense description:
Figure 2.1.1.5: past continues tense
Source: Azar (1999, p. 3)
This Figure explains that two actions are progress simultaneously in
the past time. According to Azar (1999:p.3) past continuous tense is an event
or action in progress in the past and the other events or actions that occur
together. The table below describes about the formula of past continuous
tense.
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Table 2.1.1.5: formula of past continuous tense.
Source: Quantum English Learning (2009, p.97 )
In past continuous tense, past continuous tense can explain the action
occurs gradually. The predicate in the sentence is was and were. The time in
this tense are all day yesterday, the whole… yesterday, when, as, while, the
whole day last week, and the other past time.
The explanations above are describe about using tenses in English grammar
and tenses will use in passive voice so after we understand all of tenses, we can more
easily to make structure of passive voice.
2.1.2 Passive voice
Passive voice is connected by tense because to make statement from active
voice to passive voice. Transitive verbs are usually active, but can also occur in the
passive voice. Since the active is the unmarked voice, so in this part, the writer wants
to focus on passive verb phrases. Voice in this context is as a verb which is as a
subject doing something or something has been done by the subject. According to
Leech (1999, p.935) Passive takes into two forms: the long passive where the agent
is expressed in a by-phrase and the short passive where the agent is left unexpressed.
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Most passive constructions are formed with the auxiliaries be followed by -ed
participle.
Example:
- similarly, a polarizer can be shown to act linearly.
However, passive verb phrases can also be formed with the get in the role of
auxiliaries.
Example:
- It’s about these people who got left behind in Vietnam.
Passive constructions are possible with the transitive verbs. The noun phrase
in the role of subject in a passive construction usually corresponds to the noun phrase
which is the direct object in associated active construction.
Example:
- [The proposal] was approved by the Project Coordinating Team.
(Passive voice)
-
The Project Coordinating Team approved the proposal. (Active
Voice)
In passive voice, intransitive verbs (the verb is not need the object) is not use
in passive sentence except if the verbs use cognate object in active sentence.
Example:
- He sings a fine song (active sentence)
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- A fine sentence song is sung by him
Passive constructions are also commonly found with two-object and the
object called Retained Object.
Example:
a. Indirect object from active verb.
- We give him a prize (active sentence)
- A prize is given him by us. (Passive sentence)
b. Direct object from active verb.
- We give him a prize (active sentence)
- He is given a prize by us (passive sentence)
There is active voice that changes into passive voice in table based on
tenses:
(1) Active and passive voice in the present tense
Simple
present
Active
Passive
V1 + (s/es)
Am
Is + VP
Are
Present continuous
Present perfect
Am
Is. + v-ing
Are
Have
Am
Is
+being+ VP
Are
Have been
Present perfect
continuous
Have Been.
+ VP
Has
+ VP
Has Been
+ VP
Have been
being
Has been
+VP
Has been
being
Table 2.1.2.1: Active and passive voice in the present tense
Source: Fundamental of English Grammar (2007:410)
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(2) Active and passive voice in the past tense
Simple past
tense
Active
V2
Past continuous
Past perfect
Past perfect
continuous
Was
+ v-ing
Had + VP
Had been + VP
+being+ VP
Had + been + v3
Had+been+being+VP
Were
Passive Was
Was
+ VP
Were
Were
Table 2.1.2.2: Active and passive voice in the past tense
Source: Fundamental of English Grammar (2007:410)
(3) Active and passive in the future tense
Simple future
Active
Will
Will be
+ V1
Shall
Passive
Future continuous
Will be
+VP
Shall be
+ v-ing
Shall be
Will be
+being+ VP
Shall be
Future perfect
Will have
Future perfect
continuous
Shall have
Will have
Been
+ VP
Shall have
Been
Will have
Been
+VP
Shall have
Been
Will have
Been being
+VP
Shall have
Been being
+v3
Table 2.1.2.3: Active and passive voice in future tense
Source: Fundamental of English Grammar (2007:410)
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(4) Active and passive voice in the past future tense.
Past future
Active
Past future continuous Past future perfect
Would
Would be
+v1
Should
+ v-ing
Should be
Would have
+VP
Should have
Past future perfect
continuous
Would
+
Have+been+ving
Should
Passive Would be
+ VP
Should be
Would be
+being+ VP
Should be
Would have
Been
Would have
Been being
+VP
Should have
Been
+ VP
Should have
Been being
Table 2.1.2.4: Active and passive voice in past future tense
Source: Fundamental of English Grammar (2007:411)
The passive voice in modal verbs in present time frame (can, may, should,
etc) + be (or get) + past participle and passive voice in modal verbs in past time
frame (can, may, should, etc) + have+ been (or gotten) + past participle.
Examples:
- A different chemical could be substituted in this experiment.
- All of our rock specimens should have been identified, since the lab
report is due.
2.1.3 Subject-Verb Agreement
Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in grammatical features like
person, number, gender, and case under pronoun-antecedent agreement. Subject and
verb in English must agree in number. According to LeTourneau (2001, p.120)
“Subject-verb agreement is subject and verb in grammatically must agree and both of
them must be either singular or plural”.
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In English, singular nouns have no suffixes: dog, church, or apricot. Plural
nouns may be marked by plural suffix: -(e)s: dog-s, church-es, and apricots.
LeTourneau adds singular verb manifest agreement only in the present tense: all past
tense verb have the same suffix, namely: (e)d., regardless of the subject pronoun with
which they occur. The suffix for third person singular verb is -(e)s,as in persuade-s,
talks, and rush-es.
If the verb is complex, the first part or the auxiliary agrees with the subject
and if the subject has more than one part (two or more noun phases), the verb is
plural.
Examples:
- This book has been a bestseller for a year.
- Science fiction and mysteries are two of my favorite kinds of summer
reading.
Freeman (2012, p.40) adds “Choosing the correct verb form is not always
easy, even for native speakers of English”. In formal English, the speakers should
correctly to choosing the verb form. Some reasons for difficulties are the following:
2.1.3.1 Identifying head noun in long subject.
Basically, the speakers difficult to determine the head noun because the
subject is closed to the verb with the subject coming first and the subject with long
modifying phrases following the main noun requiring agreement. May be, it does not
change the meaning or misunderstanding when the speakers say that but in
grammatically or formal English that is wrong or ungrammatically.
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Examples:
- The main reason we decided to take a trip to the Rocky Mountains is to learn
geological history.
- That novel about Alien invasions in several South America countries has been made
into a TV film.
2.1.3.2
Agreement
in
correlative
conjunctions:
Both....and:
either...or:
neither...Nor.
This following table is explaining the agreement with correlative conjunctions.
Examples
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Explanations
Both J.K. Rowling and J.R.R Tolkien
were named as favorite authors by
Britons in recent polls.
Both…and
Either the library or bookstores have
current magazines.
Either bookstores or the library has
current magazines.
Neither the book nor magazines
discuss this issue.
Neither the magazines nor the book
discusses this issue.
Either Kay or I am going to the library
this afternoon.
Neither the twins nor he is planning to
go to the library.
Neither…or; Neither…nor
When two subjects are connected
by both…and, use a plural verb.
The traditional rule is that the verb
should agree with the head noun
after or or nor.
This agreement rule also determines
verb form when one or more of the
subjects is a pronoun
Table 2.1.3.2: Examples and explanations of agreement in correlative conjunctions.
Source: Grammar dimension (2012: 44)
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2.1.3.3 Subject requiring singular verb.
Some types of subject always take singular verb and some common or proper
singular nouns that end in –s : course, diseases, place names, news, book and film
title.
Examples:
- Mathematics is my favorite book.
- Measles is no fun to have
- Leeds is where my aunt was born
Plural unit words of size, distance, time, and money also take singular verb.
Examples:
- Six hundred miles is too far to drive in one day. (Distance)
- Two weeks goes fast when you are on vacation
- Fifty dollars is a good price for that painting
Arithmetical operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) are
also taking singular verb.
Examples:
- seven plus three equas ten. (Addition)
- Four divided by two equals two. (Division).
Item that have two parts when use the noun pair is also take singular verb.
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Examples:
- My pair of scissors is lost. But my scissors are lost
-A pair of plaid shorts was on the dresser. But those plaid shorts were on
the dresser.
2.1.3.4 Clause Subject
Clause subject have a subject and a verb embedded within them. These
subjects may begin with noun clause markers such as what or that. The verb is
singular even when the nouns referred to are plural. Gerund (verb+ing) and infinitive
(to+verb) clauses also take singular verb.
Examples:
- what we need is more reference books.
-That languages have many differences is obvious.
-Reading books and magazines is one of my favorite ways to spend free time.
The examples explaining that the head noun pair takes a singular subject,
however that would use the plural verb.
2.1.3.5 Agreement with Fractions, Percentages, and Quantifiers.
With fractions, percentages, and quantifiers all (of) a lot of, agreement
depends on the noun or clause after these phrases. The table below describes about
agreement with fractions, percentages, and quantifiers.
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Explanations
Examples
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Fifty per cent of the book is
about poetry
All (of) our information is up
to date.
One-sixth of our Spanish club
has relatives in Mexico
A lot of my family live in
London
-
Each book has a code number
A number of students is on
time
the number of students taking
the exam is 175.
-
-
-
-
-
Use a singular verb when the
subject is: - a singular noun, - a
noun clause.
With collective nouns after
percentage and fractions, the
singular verb is usually used in
America English.
However, a plural verb is used
when the collective noun follows
quantifiers such as a lot of and
many.
With quantifier each, every, and
everyone, use singular verb,
whether the noun is singular or
plural
with a number of, use a plural verb
since the noun it modifies is always
plural
the number of, however, takes a
singular verb
Table 2.1.3.5: Examples and explanations of agreement with fractions, percentages, and quantifiers.
Source: Grammar Dimensions (2012: 51)
2.2 Definition of Errors in Language
A child acquiring his own language sometimes consistently makes the same
error. In the some way, when learner English as a second or foreign language makes
an error systematically. According to James (1998, p.90) “Error is the learner is
unable or in any way disinclined to make the correction, we assume that the form the
learner used was the one intended”. The definition of error as being an instance of
language that is unintentionally deviant and is not self-corrigible by its author. In
other way, Norrish (1983, p.67) “Error is when a learner of English makes an error
but he has not learnt the correct form”. Error and mistake are different, when the
errors cannot be self-corrected until further relevant (to that error) input (implicit or
explicit) has been provided and converted into intake by the learner. In other words,
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error requires further relevant learning to take place before they can be selfcorrected. Whereas, mistake that there is some deviance is a sufficient prompt for
self-correction, and in addition sometimes the learner gets it right but sometime the
learner makes a mistake and uses the wrong form. As human, people can learn
something from their making errors and that is will teach them to improve their
language. The first thing that we need to detecting the error is analysis the error.
According to James (1998, p.62) error analysis is the process of determining the
incidence, nature, cause, and consequences of unsuccessful language". So, the error
analysis can detected the type of errors to make people learning the errors that they
made before.
2.3 Type of Errors
James (1998, p.97) describing errors was that this procedure reveals which
errors are the same and which are different, and this was necessary step in putting
them into categories. James considers what must be the simplest way of organizing a
collection of error into the dictionary errors. Dictionaries are generally organized
according to alphabetic principles, and dictionaries of error are no exception. General
dictionaries have tended to target information on the lexical system of the language
and are in this respect distinct from grammars. According to Turon in James (1995,
p. 98) “Conceals the fact that the grammar error domains of tense, subject-verb
agreement and passive voiced”.
2.3.1 Tenses
In grammar, tense means the distinctive form of a verb for the expression of
distinctions in time: past, present, and future. Tense include in grammar errors, on
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the other hand, cover such things as mistakes in verb form and tense (the doorbell
rangs, we speaked). In this case of rangs, the learner has overgeneralised the third
person –s rule in the present (he rings) and applied it to the past. In the case of
speaked he has over generalized the past tense –ed ending.
Such errors seem to be influenced not by factor external to the second
language such as the learner’s first language but by the nature of the second language
itself. Many errors in tense usage can make different meaning of information in
explaining something. According to Shaw (1970, p.155) “The most common errors
involve sequence of tense and consistency in use”. Proper sequence requires that
when, for example, the verb of a main clause is in the present tense the verb in a
subordinate clause must be also in this tense. Consistent use of tenses implies not
shifting from one tense to another within the same passage.
The following comments on each tense should be carefully studied in
speaking English based on Shaw statement:
(a). Simple present tense
This tenses shows the "now" time of a verb.
Examples:
- He hits the ball. (Correct)
- He hit the ball. (Incorrect)
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(b). Present continuous tense
A verb form (verbal) ending in -ing and used as part of the predicate or as
an adjective.
Examples:
- I am working now. (Part of predicate) (Correct)
- I am work now. (Incorrect)
- This restaurant does a thriving business. (Adjective use)
(c). Present perfect tense
The time of the action or state of being of a verb, beginning in the past and
just ending or still going on in the present. The time is past but it is connected with
the present, and the action or condition with the present, and the action or condition
may possibly still be going on. The present presupposes something in the present.
Example:
- I should have liked to have heard Caruso sing. (Wrong because the two
present perfect constructions create a conflict that cannot be resolved).
- I should have liked to hear Caruso sing. (right because the present
perfect have liked does not conflict with the infinitive to hear when is not limited by
tense).
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(d). Past tense
This is the second participle part of a verb and also represent the time of verb
which expresses a before-now action. This tense also indicates that an action or
conditional took place or existed at some definite time in the past.
Examples:
- When I saw the light coming toward the house, I begin to get afraid.
(Incorrect because begin which is a present tense, conflicts in meaning with saw
which is a past tense).
- The winter of 1995 was cold. (Correct)
- The winter of 1995 is cold. (Incorrect)
(e). Past continuous tense
Past continuous tense is an event or action in progress in the past and the
other events or actions that occur together.
Examples:
-I was watching TV last night. (correct)
- I was watched TV last night. (Incorrect)
2.4.2 Passive Voice
When the verb receives the action, the verb is passive. The passive voice
usually formed by some part of the verb to be and past participle. Avoid excessive
use of the passive voice. The use of the passive voice often detracts from the
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effectiveness of a sentence. Many sentences require a passive verb, but, as general
rule, the active voice gives sentence force and strength.
Unemphatic:
-
The lecture is scheduled to be given by Commissioner Smith on
Wednesday.
- Better: Commissioner Smith will give the lecture on Wednesday.
According to Shaw (1970, p.352) “Choice of active or passive voice
depends upon context, upon relative importance of the doer and the recipient of the
action”. Since intransitive verbs rarely fulfill the conditions which make verb active
or passive, only transitive verb can have a passive voice.
Examples:
- Tom laid the book on the table
- The book was laid on the table by Tom (correct)
- We rested on the beach.
- On the beach was rested by us (incorrect)
In examples above, the first example can have a passive voice, but in the
last example, rested is in the active voice because the subject “we" is in the state or
conditional named.
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2.4.3 Subject-Verb agreement.
Basically, agreement means being in unison or concord. According to Shaw
(1970, p.269) “Agreement involve correspondence, or sameness, in number, gender,
and person”. Thus, when a subject agrees with its verb, they are alike in having the
same person (first, second, or third) and number (singular and plural). Shaw (2002,
p.270) adds few problems of agreement between subject and predicate arise because
English verb (except tobe) have one form for singular and plural and for all person
except the third person singular present. Usually when a speaker is confused over the
number of the subject because of other words or when he uses a verb to agree not
with the grammatical form of a subject but with its meaning. In short, the speaker
needs to know what the subject is and whether it is singular or plural.
Examples:
- One of you has made mistake. (Correct)
-One of you have made mistake. (Incorrect)
Sometime, the speaker chooses the verb to agree with subject not
grammatical, the speaker rather use based its meaning. In grammar, the speaker
broke the rule because speaks ungrammatically.