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Download Minerals Mineral: naturally occurring inorganic solid that has a
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Minerals 1. Mineral: naturally occurring inorganic solid that has a definite chemical composition and structure. a. Naturally occurring- not man made b. Inorganic- doesn’t have part of living or once living things c. Solid- has definite shape and volume d. Chemical composition- each mineral has their own special recipe that makes them unique e. Structure- each mineral has a crystal structure. 2 & 3. Hardness: Moh’s hardness scale- tests the hardness of each rock 1 being the softest (talc) and 10 being the hardest (diamond) Color: this is observed Streak: the color of a mineral’s powder. Drag the mineral across a ceramic glass to look at the mineral powder. Only will leave a streak color if it is soft enough. Luster: how a mineral reflects light from its surface Density: the mass in a given space (always stays the same no matter what the size) Cleavage: how easily a mineral splits along a flat surface. Fracture: how a mineral looks when it breaks apart in an irregular way. Rocks 1. Rock: the material that forms Earth’s hard surface. They are made up of minerals. 2. Igneous Rocks form from the cooling of molten rock- either magma below the surface or lava at the surface. 3. Intrusive- formed when magma hardened beneath Earth’s surface – coarse or large grains. Extrusive_ formed from lava that erupted onto Earth’s surface- fine grained or glassy 4. Chemical- formed when a solution is evaporated Clastic- formed from fragments of other rocks Organic- formed from parts of once living animal (fossils, shells) 5. Foliated- banded minerals Non-foliated- mineral are distributed throughout the rock. 6. Intrusive- formed when magma hardened beneath Earth’s surface – coarse or large grains. Extrusive_ formed from lava that erupted onto Earth’s surface- fine grained or glassy 7. Cementation- minerals get dissolved by water, they act as a glue to keep the rock fragments together. Compaction- the pressure from the layers upon pushing on the rock below 8. Foliated- banded minerals Non-foliated- mineral are distributed throughout the rock. 9. The rock cycle is continuously changing from one type of rock to another. Layers of the Earth/Continental Drift 1. Crust: the layer of rock that forms Earth’s outer skin Mantle: layer of hot rock Lithosphere: part of crust and mantle together form a rigid layer. Asthenosphere: the soft layer of the mantle in which the lithosphere floats. Outer core: layer of molten metal that surrounds the inner core. Inner core: a dense ball of solid metal. 2. Continental Drift Theory – all the continents had once been joined together in a single landmass and have since drifted apart. By Wegener 3. Pangaea- the supercontinent. 4. Convection currents in the mantle cause the plates to move. The heating and cooling of the fluid, changes in the fluid’s density and the force of gravity combine to set convection currents in motion. 5. Lithosphere: part of crust and mantle together form a rigid layer. Asthenosphere: the soft layer of the mantle in which the lithosphere floats. 6. Subduction: when one plate sinks beneath another. It will be the plate that is denser than the other. 7. Divergent boundary; occurs where plates move apart. Most divergent boundaries are found in the ocean. As plates move apart, new crust is built, forming mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys. Convergent boundary: occurs where plates push together. Crust is destroyed where plates subduct. It is folded where plates collide. Continental-continental collision: where 2 plates carrying continental crust push together. Both crust are the same density, neither plate can sink beneath the other. This creates mountain ranges. Oceanic-oceanic subduction- where one plate with oceanic crust sinks or subducts under another plate with oceanic crust. The older plate is colder and denser than the younger plate so therefore it will subduct. Deep ocean trenches and island arc will form here. Oceanic-Continental Subduction- where ocean crust sinks under continental crust. The oceanic crust is colder and denser than continental crust. At these sites deep-ocean trenches form as well as coastal mountains. Transform boundary; occurs where the plates scrape past each other. Plates scrape horizontally past each other. Crust is neither formed nor destroyed. 8. Sea floor Spreading: forms rift valleys. This is where the plates move apart. Rising magma fills the cracks, and the rock cools. As more magma flows into the crack the rock splits, is pushed aside and produces ridges on either side of the rift valley. Earthquakes 1. Earthquake: the shaking and trembling that result from the movement of rock beneath Earth’s surface. 2. Seismic waves carry the energy of the earthquake away from the focus, through Earth’s interior and across the surface. There are 3 categories of seismic waves; pwaves, s-waves, and surface waves. 3. The 1st to arrive are the primary waves, or p-waves. P-waves are earthquake waves that compress and expand the ground like an accordion. S-waves or secondary waves are earthquake waves that vibrate from side to side as well as up and down. Surface waves move more slowly than p-waves and s-waves, but they can produce severe ground movements. Some surface waves make the ground roll like ocean waves. 4. Focus; the point beneath the Earth’s surface where rock that is under stress breaks, triggering an earthquake Epicenter: the point directly above the focus on the surface Fault: is a break in the crust where slabs of crust slip past each other. 5. Hazards of earthquakes; shaking of the earth, power lines fall, gas line burst, fires, and building falling. 6. To determine where an earthquake occurred you need to find the difference in the arrival of p-waves and s-waves from 3 different stations. Use the chart to determine the distance around the station center. Draw a circle around the station center. Where the 3 circles meet is where the earthquake occurred. Volcanoes 1. Shield Volcano; thin layers of lava pours out of a vent and hardens on top of a previous layer. The lava flows gradually build a wide, gently sloping mountain. Form from a hot spot. Quiet eruptions. Cinder Cone: when cinders erupt explosively from a volcanic vent, they pile up around the vent, forming a cone shaped hill. Composite: lava flow alternates with layers of ash, cinders, and bombs, which has both quiet and explosive eruptions. Tall cone shaped mountain. 2. Shield- quiet Cinder cone-explosive Composite- quiet and explosive 3. Most volcanoes occur along diverging plate boundaries, such as mid-ocean ridge or in subduction zones around the edge of oceans. Some volcanoes can form at hot spots. 4. High in silica: very thick, light colored, lower in temperature, cause explosive eruption Low in silica: thin, dark colored, hotter in temperature, cause quiet eruptions 5. Hot spring form when a body of water is heated up from magma. It makes it way to the surface through a crack in the rock. 6. Hazards of volcanoes lava, pyroclastic flow, fire, gases Weathering and Erosion 1. Mechanical/Physical weathering: the breakdown of rock into smaller pieces of the same material without any change in its composition Chemical weathering: the breakdown or decomposition of rock that takes place when minerals change through chemical processes. The agents of chemical weathering are water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acid rain. 2. The most important factors that determine the rate at which weathering occurs are the type of rock and climate. a. Climate- wet climates allow weathering to occur faster. Chemical in hotter temperatures and mechanical/physical in colder temperatures. b. Rock type the softer the rock such as Sedimentary the easier the breakdown the harder the rock such as metamorphic the hard it is to breakdown. 3. Release of pressure- as erosion removes material from the surface of a mass of rock; pressure on the rock below is reduced. This release of pressure causes the outside of the rock to crack and flake off like the layer of on onion. Ice wedging- when water freezes in cracks of rock, it expands and makes the crack bigger. Plant growth- root of trees and other plants enter cracks in rocks. As the root grows the force the crack apart. Carbon dioxide- can mix with water and produce a weak acid which and destroy rocks. Water- will erode rock. Abrasion- sand and other rock particles that carried by wind, water, or ice can wear away exposed rock surfaces like sandpaper on wood. Animal action- animals that burrow in the ground loosen and break apart rocks in the soil. 4. Weathering: The process by which natural forces break down rocks. Erosion: The process in which sediment is picked up and moved from one place to another. Deposition: the process in which transported sediment is laid down. 5. Soil is a mixture of four material; weathered rock particles, organic matter, water, and air. Soil that forms in an area will depend on a number of factors which include: the kind of rock, the area’s climate, or overall weather pattern over time, the landforms in the area, such as mountains and valleys, the plant coverage, the animals and other organisms in the area, and time. 6. All mass movement/mass wasting is due to gravity. a. Slump- a mass of rock and soil that suddenly slips down a slope in one large mass. b. Creep- the very slow downhill movement of rock and soil. Can’t see happened, it occurs over a period of time. c. Rockslide/rock fall- individual blocks of rock drop suddenly and fall freely down a cliff or steep mountain. Large mass of rock slides down the hill or mountain as a unit. d. Mudflow/mudslide- a mixture of rock, soil, and plant. 7. Moving water is the major agent of erosion that shaped Earth’s land surface. A river creates valleys, waterfalls, floodplains, meanders, and oxbow lakes. 8. The 2 processes by which glaciers erode the land are plucking and abrasion. Plucking picks up rocks by freezing to the bottom of the glacier. Weather 1. Atmosphere- the layer of gases that surrounds the planet. a. Oxygen=21% b. Nitrogen =78% c. Other gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, helium, methane=1% Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and many other gases, as well as particles of liquids and solids 2. Air has pressure because it has mass. Dense, cool, air exerts more pressure than less dense warm air. The result of weight of a column of air pushing down on an area. More pressure at the bottom of a mountain than on the top. 3. A barometer is used to measure air pressure. 4. There is more air pressure near sea level because there is more air pushing down on you. There isles air pressure on top of a mountain because you have less air pushing down on you. 5. There are 4 main layers of the atmosphere that are classified according to changes in temperature. a. Troposphere- where weather occurs, layer that we live in. b. Stratosphere- where you would find the ozone c. Mesosphere- where meteoroids burn up d. Thermosphere 6. The ozone layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation. 3 atoms of oxygen. It absorbs energy from the sun; the energy is converted into heat, warming the air. 7. Heat is transferred by radiation conduction, and convection. a. Radiation- direct transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves. b. Conduction- direct transfer of heat from one substance to another substance that it is touching. c. Convection- transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid (gas or liquid) 8. Winds are caused by a difference in air pressure. The difference in air pressure is caused by unequal heating of the atmosphere. 9. Cold air masses tend to be denser and will sink. 10. Local winds are caused by unequal heating of Earth’s surface within a small area. a. Sea breezes- a wind that blows from a lake or ocean onto land. Daytime b. Land breeze – the flow of air from land to a body of water. Nighttime Global winds- Winds that blow steadily from a specific direction over long distances. Created by unequal heating of Earth’s surface. a. Trade winds b. Prevailing westerlies c. Polar Easterlies 11. Coriolis Effect – the way the earth’s rotation makes the winds curve. Northern hemisphere winds gradually turn toward the right. In the southern hemisphere winds gradually curve left. 12. Cumulus- looks like fluffy rounded piles of cotton. Mean heap or mass. Usually indicate fair weather. They grow in height. Stratus – forms in flat layers usually covers the entire sky. May produce drizzle, rain, snow. Low level clouds. Cirrus – Wispy, feathery clouds. Form at high level in the atmosphere. Mode mostly of ice crystals. 13. Maritime Tropical – warm, humid air masses form over oceans near the tropics. In the summer it brings hot, humid weather. In winter, can bring heavy rain or snow. Maritime Polar – cool, humid air masses form over the icy cold North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans. Continental Tropical – hot, dry air masses form only in summer over dry areas of the southwest and Northern Mexico. Continental Polar – large polar air masses form over central and northern Canada and Alaska. They bring cool or cold air. The masses can form near the Arctic Circle and can bring bitterly cold weather with very low humidity. 14. Thunderstorms form within large cumulonimbus clouds. They form on hot humid afternoons in spring and summer. 15. The seasons are caused by the tilt of Earth’s axis as Earth travels around the sun. 16. Climate- refers to the average year after year conditions of temperature, precipitation, winds and clouds in an area. 2 main factors of determining the climate of a region is temperature and precipitation. Factors that affect temperature latitudelocations farther from the equator are cooler than climates of areas closer to the equator. Altitude – as you increase in altitude you decrease in temperature. Distance from a large body of water- winds from the water can decrease temp. Ocean currents- currents on the east coast get warm currents: currents on the west coast get cold currents. Space 1. Earth’s rotation on its axis causes day and night. Its cycle is about 24 hours. One complete revolution around the sun is called 1 year. The moon revolves around earth which takes about 27.3 days. It also rotates on its axis once every 27.3 days. A “day” and a “year” are the same length on the moon. 2. Earth rotating on its axis causes day and night. The cause of seasons is because of the tilt of Earth’s axis. 3. Earth is tilted 23.5degrees. In the Northern hemisphere in June the tilt is toward the sun and in December the tilt is away from the sun. 1/2 of the year neither hemisphere is tilted toward the sun. 4. The moon is about ¼ the size of earth. 5. Tides occur mainly because of the differences in how much the moon pulls on the different parts of Earth. 6. Solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes between the sun and blocking the sunlight from reaching Earth. Lunar eclipse occurs at a full moon when earth is directly between the moon and the sun. 7. Theory of the moon = about 4.5 billion years ago, an object as large as Mars collided with Earth. Material from the object and Earth’s outer layer was thrown into orbit. This material eventually combined to form the moon. 8. The sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion- hydrogen atoms combine to form helium. 9. There is enough hydrogen to fuel the sun for 10 billion years. The sun is now about 5 billion years old. 10. The four inner planets are small and have rocky surfaces known as terrestrial planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars The four outer planets are much larger than Earth and do not have solid surfaces. They are known as gas planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune 11. Mercury- closest to the sun. Venus – similar to size of earth. Rotates so slowly that day is longer than its year. It atmosphere is denser than other planets Earth- covered with ~71% water Mars- red planet, has seasons, 2 small moons Jupiter- most massive planet, giant red spot, 17 moons Saturn- rings made of chunks of ice and rock Uranus- looks blue because of methane in atmosphere; rotates on its side Neptune- 30 times Earth’s distance from sun, atmosphere contains visible clouds, great dark spot, and 8 moons 12. The asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter 13. Meteoroids- chunk of rock pr dust in space they usually come from comets or asteroids. Meteor- streak of light in sky produced by the burning of a meteoroid in Earth’s atmosphere. Meteorite – a meteoroid that has hit Earth’s surface. Comet – chunks of ice and dust whose orbits are usually very long, narrow ellipses. 14. Light year- the distance that light travels in one year = 9.5 billion million kilometers. 15. The main characteristics used to classify stars are size, temperature, and brightness. 16. Blue-white- 15,000 digress Celsius Blue – 10,000 degrees Celsius White – 5, 500 degrees Celsius Red – 3,200 degrees Celsius 17. Hertz sprung-Russell- a graph relating the temperature and brightness of stars. Most stars form the main sequences where surface temperature increases as brightness increases. Supergiant and giants are cool but bright. White dwarfs are not bright, but are hot. 18. How long a star lives depends on how much mass it has. All stars begin their lives as part of nebulas. A star is born when the contracting gas and dust become so hot that nuclear fusion starts. When a star runs out of fuel it becomes a white dwarf, neutron star, or a black hole. 19. Supernova- the explosions of a dying giant or super giant star. Black hole – the remains of an extremely massive star pulled into a small volume by the force of gravity. White dwarf- the remaining hot core of a star after its outer layers have expanded and drifted out into space. Neutron star – a tiny star that remains after a supernova explosion. 20. An “AU” astronomical unit is the distance between the Earth and the sun. 21. The Milky Way galaxy is a spiral shaped galaxy. Water and Oceans percentage of fresh and salt water on earth 1. Salt water =97% Freshwater =3% Break up of freshwater d. Ice=76% e. Shallow groundwater=12% f. Deep groundwater=11% g. Rivers and lakes=0.34% h. Water vapor =0.037% Water are the parts of the water cycle 2. Evaporation – water molecules at the surface are liquid they absorb enough energy to change to gas. Condensation – water vapor cools and condenses into liquid water. Condensed water droplets clump together around tiny dust particles in the air, forming clouds. Precipitation- water that falls to Earth as rain, snow, hail, or sleet. What causes surface waves 3. Surface currents, which affect water to a depth of several hundred meters, are driven mainly by winds. The different types of currents 4. Surface currents a. On the east coast there are warm currents b. On the west coast there are cold currents How do currents affect climate 5. Surface currents, it warms or cools the air above it, influencing the climate of the land near the coast. El Niño 6. A disturbance of wind patterns and ocean currents in the Pacific Ocean that causes temporary climate changes in many parts of the world.