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Chapter 16 Answers to Before You Go On Questions 1. Define and explain the “four Ds” of abnormal behaviour. (1) Deviance—behaviour, thoughts, and emotions are considered abnormal when they differ from society’s ideas about proper functioning. (2) Distress—to be considered abnormal, behaviours, ideas, or emotions usually must also cause distress or unhappiness. (3) Dysfunction—abnormal behaviour also tends to interfere with daily functioning as opposed to behaviour that is simply eccentric but a part of a person’s life. (4) Danger—some people with psychological dysfunction become dangerous to themselves and others. 2. What is the DSM-IV-TR? The DSM-IV-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 4th Edition, Text Revision) is the leading classification system in North America for listings of psychological disorders, including descriptions of the symptoms and guidelines for determining when individuals should be assigned to categories. It is published by the American Psychiatric Association and has been revised several times since it was first published in 1952. It lists and describes the symptoms of approximately 400 mental disorders. 3. What are the major models used by psychologists to explain abnormal functioning? The perspectives that scientists use to explain phenomena are known as models, or paradigms (Kuhn, 1962), and the major models used to explain this abnormal functioning phenomena are (1) the neuroscience model, (2) the cognitive-behavioural model, (3) the psychodynamic model, (4) the sociocultural model, and (5) the developmental psychopathology model. 4. What major types of brain problems are linked to abnormal functioning? Neuroscientists have linked some mental disorders to deficient or excessive activity of different neurotransmitters in the brain. Depression, for example, seems to be related to insufficient activity of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin (Beck & Alford, 2009). Another such disorder is Huntington’s disease, a disorder marked by violent emotional outbursts, memory loss, suicidal thinking, involuntary body movements, and absurd beliefs, and has been linked to the loss of cells in a particular brain region. Studies suggest that genetic inheritance plays a key role in disorders such as schizophrenia, mental retardation, Alzheimer’s disease, and others. Another possible source of abnormal brain structure or biochemical abnormal functioning appears to be viral infections. Some research suggests that, for example, schizophrenia, a disorder marked by hallucinations and other departures from reality, may be related to exposure to certain viruses before birth or during childhood (Fox, 2010). 5. In the view of cognitive-behavioural theorists, what kinds of problems can lead to abnormal functioning? Cognitive-behavioural theorists believe that abnormal functioning can be linked to problematic learned behaviours or dysfunctional cognitive processes. 6. How are the humanistic and existential models similar, and how do they differ? Humanistic and existential models are usually grouped together because of their common focus on the broader dimensions of human existence. Humanists tend to be the most optimistic of the two groups, believing that we are all born with a natural inclination to fulfill our potential for goodness and growth. To do so, we need to be able to honestly appraise and accept our strengths and weaknesses and find positive personal values to live by. While existentialists agree with humanists that human beings must have an accurate awareness of themselves and live subjectively meaningful lives in order to be well adjusted, they do not believe that people are naturally inclined to live constructively. In fact, they believe that from birth we have the freedom either to confront our existence and give meaning to our lives or to run away from that responsibility. 7. What social and cultural factors have been found to be related to abnormal functioning? Researchers have found relationships between abnormal functioning and factors such as widespread social change, socio-economic class membership, cultural background, social networks, and family systems (Cardemil, 2011). When a society undergoes major change, the mental health of its members can be greatly affected (including rapid urbanization, for example). In terms of cultural factors affecting abnormal functioning, many theorists believe that human behaviour is understood best by examining an individual’s unique cultural context, including the values of that culture and the external pressures faced by members of the culture. Ethnic minorities and racial groups, along with economically disadvantaged persons, women, and homosexual individuals, face special pressures in society that may help produce feelings of stress and, in some cases, abnormal functioning. 8. What is learned helplessness, and what is its role in depression? Learned helplessness is when individuals learn (and believe) that they are helpless to do anything to change negative situations in their lives. Late in life, this causes the individuals to continue to act in helpless ways to situations in which they have the power to escape or change. Seligman proposed that people become depressed after developing a general belief that they have no control over the rewards and punishments in their lives (Seligman, 1975). 9. What is the cognitive triad? Beck’s cognitive triad is a pattern of thinking in which individuals repeatedly interpret their experiences, themselves, and their futures in negative ways that lead them to feel depressed. 10. How does bipolar disorder differ from major depression? People with a bipolar disorder often describe their lives as an emotional rollercoaster. They shift back and forth between extreme moods, experiencing both the lows of depression and the highs of mania. Unlike people sunk in the gloom of depression, those in a state of mania experience dramatic and inappropriate rises in mood. 11. What are six types of anxiety disorder? (1) Generalized anxiety disorder, (2) social anxiety disorder, (3) phobias, (4) panic disorder, (5) obsessive-compulsive disorder, and (6) posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). 12. How and why might generalized anxiety disorder be related to uncertainty? According to some theories, certain individuals consider it unacceptable that negative events may occur, even if the possibility of occurrence is very small. Given that life is filled with uncertain events, such individuals may come up against several “unacceptable” events each day. Worrying constantly that unacceptable events are on the verge of happening, the individuals are particularly vulnerable to the development of generalized anxiety disorder (Dugas, Buhr, & Ladouceur, 2004). 13. What role do conditioning and modelling play in the development of phobias? According to behaviourists, classical conditioning is one way of acquiring fear reactions to objects or situations that are not really dangerous. For example, a lightning strike (unconditioned stimulus) may naturally elicit a reaction of fear (unconditioned response) in an individual. In such a situation, it is possible that a harmless object, such as raindrops (conditioned stimulus)—an object that had simply accompanied the frightening event—will come to also elicit a fear reaction (conditioned response) in the person. Another way of acquiring a fear reaction is through modelling—that is, through observation and imitation (Bandura & Rosenthal, 1966). A person may observe that others (e.g., a parent) are afraid of certain objects (e.g., dogs) or events and develop fears of the same things. 14. What individual factors affect who will develop posttraumatic stress syndrome? To more fully explain the onset of PTSD, researchers from various models of abnormality have pointed to individuals’ biological processes, personalities, childhood experiences, social support systems, and cultural backgrounds. These factors can play a role in all stress disorders. 15. What is a psychosis? Psychosis is a loss of contact with reality. An individual’s ability to properly perceive and respond to the environment becomes so disturbed that he or she may no longer be able to function properly at home, with friends, in school, or at work. 16. What are the positive symptoms of schizophrenia? The negative symptoms? The psychomotor symptoms? Positive symptoms of schizophrenia, or symptoms that seem to represent pathological excesses in behaviour, include delusions, disorganized thinking and speech, hallucinations, and inappropriate affect. The negative symptoms of schizophrenia are those that seem to be pathological deficits, or characteristics that are lacking in an individual. These include poverty of speech, flat affect, loss of volition, and social withdrawal. Psychomotor symptoms are the awkward movements or odd grimaces and gestures sometimes made by people with schizophrenia. The psychomotor symptoms may take extreme forms collectively called catatonia. These include catatonic stupor, catatonic rigidity, and catatonic posturing. They may also exhibit “waxy flexibility,” in which they maintain indefinitely postures into which they have been placed by someone else. 17. What biochemical abnormalities and brain structures have been associated with schizophrenia? Over the past four decades, researchers have developed the so-called dopamine hypothesis to help explain schizophrenia: certain neurons that use the neurotransmitter dopamine fire too often and transmit too many messages, thus producing the symptoms of the disorder (Busatto et al., 2009). During the past decade, researchers have also linked many cases of schizophrenia to abnormalities in brain structure. Using brain scans, they have found that many people with schizophrenia have enlarged ventricles (the brain cavities that contain cerebrospinal fluid), relatively small temporal lobes and frontal lobes, and abnormal blood flow in certain areas of the brain. In addition, some studies have linked schizophrenia to structural abnormalities of the hippocampus, amygdala, and thalamus (Leube, 2009). 18. What distinguishes a pain disorder associated with psychological factors from a conversion or a somatization disorder? In somatoform disorders (conversion disorder, somatization disorder), there is an actual change in physical functioning. In other psychological forms (hypochondriasis and body dysmorphic disorder), people who are healthy mistakenly worry that there is something physically wrong with them. 19. List and describe three dissociative disorders. (1) Dissociative amnesia—people are unable to recall important information, usually of an upsetting nature, about their lives (APA, 2000). (2) Dissociative fugue—people not only forget their personal identities and details of their past lives, but also flee to an entirely different location. (3) Dissociate identity disorder— previously known as multiple personality disorder, people develop two or more distinct personalities—called subpersonalities or alternate personalities—each with a unique set of memories, behaviours, thoughts, and emotions. 20. Which disorder discussed in this section is most closely linked to adult criminal behaviour? Antisocial personality disorder is a personality disorder characterized by extreme and callous disregard for the feelings and rights of others. Aside from substance-related disorders, this is the disorder most closely linked to adult criminal behaviour. Most people with antisocial personality disorder display some patterns of misbehaviour before they are 15, including truancy, running away, physical cruelty to animals or people, and destroying property. Thirty percent of individuals in Canadian prisons would meet the diagnostic criteria for antisocial personality disorder (as opposed to 2% to 3.5% of the general population).