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Chapter
2
A FRAMEWORK FOR CONSUMER ANALYSIS
AUTHORS' OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
Behavioral scientists have usually taken one of two basic approaches to analyzing human behavior. One is to
examine how internal factors such as affective feeling responses and cognitive thinking processes influence
behavior. The other is to focus on features in the physical environment that influence directly observable behavior.
In this text, we are concerned with the effects of both internal, psychological factors (affect and cognition) and
external factors (the environment) on behavior. Moreover, we are concerned with the reciprocal influences between
all three factors--behavior, affect and cognition, and the environment.
In this chapter we introduce a simple, yet powerful framework for analyzing consumer behavior based on this idea
of reciprocal influence. Our framework is called the "Wheel of Consumer Analysis," and is adapted from a model
developed by the psychologist Albert Bandura. We identify four broad categories of factors that should be
considered in any thorough consumer analysis: (1) consumers' affect and cognition, (2) consumers' behaviors, (3)
consumers' environments, and (4) marketing strategies (actually a special part of the environment). Following
Bandura, we emphasize that all of these factors continually interact with one another in a process of mutual
causation called reciprocal determinism. This means, simply, that a change in one factor leads to or causes changes
in the other factors which then may "return" to cause changes in the "originating" factor, and so on, over time.
Examples of reciprocal causation abound in the natural world and are easy to see, once one knows how to look for
them. For instance, changes in the physical environment over the past 20 years or so (gradual increases in the
number of fast-food restaurants in the U.S.) have caused changes in consumers' affect and cognitions (their feelings
and meanings about fast-food restaurants) and their behaviors (patronizing these stores more frequently). These
changes led to more fast-food restaurants being built, which in turn further influenced consumers' affect, cognition
and behavior. Of course, the marketing strategies used by fast-food restaurant companies during this expansion
period also influenced all of these factors and the process of interactions among them.
To visually illustrate this system, we developed a model in the shape of a wheel, with affect and cognition,
environment, and behavior around the rim. Each factor "touches" and can affect the other two. Marketing strategy
(a key focus of our text) is the hub of the "wheel" from which strategies "touch" and influence each of the other
elements. Thus, an effective marketing strategy could influence consumers' affective and cognitive responses, their
specific behaviors, aspects of the consumers' physical or social environment, or all three at once. Moreover, each of
these effects could have a subsequent causal impact on the other factors, including a "feedback" influence on the
marketing strategy that began the process.
It is important to note that we do not present the Wheel of Consumer Analysis (WCA) as a theory of consumer
behavior. Instead, we treat it as a simple conceptual framework for thinking about consumers in the context of
developing marketing strategies. In our text, we use the WCA for two broad purposes.
1. At a practical level, the WCA is an analytical framework that helps students identify, organize, and
analyze the many complex factors that are involved in the study of consumer behavior. It is also
heuristic in that it can stimulate the development of marketing strategies. In addition, the WCA
provides a framework for critiquing existing marketing strategies.
2. At a pedagogical level, the WCA serves as the framework for organizing the text. Each of its four
elements is treated in separate sections of the book. In each section, however, the other elements of the
WCA and their interrelationships are discussed.
Next, we discuss four levels of consumer analysis where the WCA can be used to understand consumer behavior
issues. The societal level involves understanding the affective, cognitive and behavioral responses of people in a
society or culture and how these factors are related to the environment of that society. Marketing strategies here are
at the level of the social system--how a culture promotes auto travel. The industry level of consumer analysis
concerns relationships between the Wheel components for all the consumers who buy an industry's products
(automobiles). The market segment level deals with the affective, cognitive, behavioral and environmental aspects
of particular market segments (middle income consumers who want inexpensive cars). Finally, at the individual
level, the Wheel of Consumer Analysis can be used to examine the reciprocal relationships between affective,
cognitive, behavioral responses to the unique environment of a single person. Marketing managers usually are most
interested in the industry and market segment levels, but on occasion find it valuable to analyze consumer behavior
at the societal and individual levels, too.
It is critical that students understand the Wheel of Consumer Analysis and the concept of reciprocal determinism by
which the four elements are interrelated. In the chapter, we define each of the four elements and give examples of
each one. We also define the concept of reciprocal determinism and give examples. The chapter "case" concerns
Suzuki Motors and the Samuri car.
KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES
 Wheel of Consumer Analysis
 Key elements of wheel model--affect and cognition, environment, behavior, and marketing strategy
 Principle of reciprocal determinism (mutual causation or continuous interaction)
 Importance of studying the wheel system over time--reciprocal influences among the four components
over time
 Usefulness of consumer analysis for developing effective marketing strategies
 Levels of consumer analysis--societal, industry, segment, individual
OUTLINE OF CHAPTER TOPICS
Chapter 2: A FRAMEWORK FOR CONSUMER ANALYSIS
A. Buying a Smith & Wesson: Good or Bad Idea?
B. B. Three Elements for Consumer Analysis
1. Consumer Affect and Cognition
2. Consumer Behavior
3. Consumer Environment
4. Relationships among Affect and Cognition, Behavior, and the Environment
C. Marketing Strategy
D. Levels of Consumer Analysis
1. Societies
2. Industries
3. Market Segments
4. Individual Consumers
E. Back to ... Buying a Smith & Wesson
F. Marketing Strategy in Action: Starbucks
TEACHING OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, students should be able to:

define and identify affective and cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors.

recognize why all three factors must be taken into consideration for a thorough understanding of
consumers.

describe why marketing strategies are a part of the consumer's physical and social environment.

understand that marketing strategies can influence consumers' affect and cognitions, behaviors, and
environment, and in turn are influenced by these factors.

describe the dynamic process of reciprocal determinism (mutual causation) between the four elements in
the Wheel of Consumer Analysis.

understand that developing, implementing, and controlling marketing strategies requires continuous
attention to the affective and cognitive, environmental, and behavioral aspects of the consumer market and
their reciprocal interactions.

discuss the four levels of consumer analysis to which the Wheel of Consumer Analysis can be applied-societal, industry, market segment and individual.
TEACHING IDEAS AND SUGGESTIONS
A key goal for teaching Chapter 2 is to help students understand the concepts embodied in the Wheel of Consumer
Analysis and appreciate how they interact and influence each other, reciprocally over time. Suggestions for
covering this and other topics are discussed below.
What Do Marketers Need to Know? Rather than immediately presenting and discussing the "Wheel Model," you
might "get there" via a less direct route.

Remind students of Ted Levitt's statement, "The purpose of a business is to create and keep a
customer." Then ask, "How are marketing managers to do this? What do marketing managers need to
know about consumers?"
This should generate a lively discussion with students offering a large number of "things about
consumers" that marketing managers need to know. Jot these on the chalkboard.

As the discussion dies down, ask students to simplify the long list of "things" by finding ways to
organize it into categories.
If no student can do so, show that all (or nearly all) of the factors can be grouped into four
categories: internal characteristics of consumers (affect and cognition), overt behaviors,
environmental factors (physical or social), or marketing strategies (physical or social aspects of the
environment that are under the control of marketing managers).

Then, review the definitions of each component as covered in the text (see pp. 22-25). Remind students
that each of these components will be dealt with in detail in later sections of the book, beginning with
affect and cognition in Section 2.
This exercise can lead into a discussion of the Wheel of Consumer Analysis, our model of the relationships between
these key elements in the study of consumer behavior.
The Wheel of Consumer Analysis. Students need to understand the Wheel of Consumer Analysis (WCA) and the
concept of reciprocal determinism by which the four elements are interrelated.

Begin with a brief lecture in which you explain the wheel model using examples to illustrate the key
points. Then, have the class discuss these concepts and respond to their questions. Probe for
uncertainties and confusions. There will be some, but in our experience most students pick up the idea
of the Wheel of Consumer Analysis quite readily.

To facilitate understanding, you can assign a short project that requires students to think about the WCA
(see example below).
In-Class Exercise: Here is a simple in-class exercise to illustrate the four elements in the wheel model and
the principle of reciprocal determinism (Exhibit 2.1). Select virtually any behavior--such as shopping at discount
stores or eating in fast food restaurants--and ask questions that require students to apply the three elements in the
WCA model (cognition and affect, environment, behavior) and to explore reciprocity among the elements. For
instance:

"Does the availability of discount stores affect consumers' shopping behavior?" Or, "Does the design of
the store influence consumers' shopping behavior?"
If yes, then environment causes behavior.

"Does shopping in discount stores affect consumers' beliefs, attitudes, and feelings toward these types
of retail outlets?"
If yes, behavior influences affect and cognition.

And so on. For each question, ask students to generate a specific example or two of how a particular
element in the WCA affects the others ("In what ways does this behavior affect the environment?"
"How does this aspect of the environment influence consumers' affect and cognition?").
This exercise forces students to accept the intellectual challenge of working through the WCA in a concrete way,
rather than passively accepting it, without any deep thinking about the model.
Probably, the most difficult relationship to explain is that AFFECT and COGNITION INFLUENCE the
ENVIRONMENT. Many people seem to resist this idea, perhaps because it seems to characterize the environment as
unstable. But, the environment actually is "variable," in several important ways.
First, the way people experience an environment is highly influenced by their affective and cognitive states,
which are somewhat transitory and changeable. Thus, eating in a nice restaurant when you are in a good
mood versus in a bad mood usually produces two different experiences of that environment. To the person,
the environment may even seem physically different on the two occasions (larger vs. smaller; more vs. less
attractive; livelier vs. more dull)
In a more tangible sense, certain aspects of the social environment change over time as a function of
peoples' affective and cognitive processes, partially because each person is a part of the social environment
that he/she experiences. For instance, participating in a party when one is in a happy mood may influence
the overall affective tone of the party (the social environment); the opposite effect can occur if one is in a
gloomy mood.
Cross-cultural examples also illustrate how affect and cognition can influence the environment. Different
societies or cultures often have very different interpretations of the same environmental event. In this
sense, the environment is quite literally created by the affective and cognitive reactions of the people in
each culture. For instance, Eskimos are said to have over 100 terms for snow. These cognitions make their
sense of the winter environment different from that of other people. (Closer to home, skiers can distinguish
many different qualities of snow compared to nonskiers.)
Finally, note that if sufficient numbers of consumers reach consensus about the environment (they have
similar cognitive and affective reactions to it), they are likely to behave in certain ways to physically
construct or modify that environment to bring it into line with their perceptions and desires. Thus, it is
legitimate to claim that people's affect and cognition, along with their behaviors, jointly create much of the
physical and social environment. Obviously, for example, a city is an environment physically built by
people based on their feelings and beliefs.
Marketing Strategies are Aspects of the Environment. In the text, we emphasize that marketing strategies are
part of the physical and social environment to which consumers are exposed. The following exercise can help
students become more aware of the prevalence and potential influence of marketing strategies in their environment.

Explain that the text separates marketing strategies from the environment in the Wheel of Consumer
Analysis, but only for clarity and emphasis. Marketing strategies, from the consumers' point of view,
are aspects of the environment. From the marketing manager's perspective, marketing strategies are
those parts of the environment that can be directly controlled.

Challenge doubting students to identify a marketing strategy that is not experienced by consumers as a
physical or social stimulus in their environment.
For each proffered exception, you should be able to easily show that, from the consumers'
viewpoint, the marketing strategy is experienced as an aspect of the environment. (And, from the
manager's perspective, the marketing strategy involves environmental factors that can be
controlled.)

Have students brainstorm in class and list some the various marketing strategies they come into contact
with during one day.
Discussing some of these can provide a vivid illustration of the variety and pervasiveness of
marketing strategies.

Then, ask the class to describe the broader environment in which some of these marketing strategies are
experienced, as well as identifying consumers' behaviors, affect and cognitions during exposure to the
strategy.
This exercise will allow you to point out some of the reciprocal interactions that occur between the
four elements of the WCA.
Reciprocal Causation. The concept of reciprocal causation refers to the pattern of mutual or bi-directional
causality between factors that occurs over time. Thus, one factor (behavior) may cause a change in another (the
environment), which later (seconds, days, or even years later) causes a change in the first factor (behavior)...and so
on.
For instance, as more people shop in discount stores, more such stores are built, which in turn facilitates
and encourages more discount shopping. This concept of mutual, back-and-forth causation is sometimes
more difficult for instructors to grasp than students. Many instructors are used to scientific analyses that
typically are based on simple, unidirectional, causal reasoning. However, once you become used to
recognizing reciprocal relationships, you will find them everywhere.
Nearly any situation that you can think of can provide useful examples of reciprocal causation.
For instance, remodeling a store (a change in the physical environment) may cause consumers to have
favorable affective and cognitive responses (feeling the store has a nice atmosphere), which then lead to
changes in store patronage behaviors (more frequent shopping in the store), which reinforce the affective
feelings and cognitive responses, etc. You might note that such changes in behavior, if evidenced by many
consumers, may actually change the store environment. For example, large crowds of shoppers could ruin
the atmosphere, leading to negative feelings and beliefs, and less frequent shopping behaviors.
A Dynamic Approach to Consumer Behavior. One of the most interesting implications of the Wheel of
Consumer Analysis is its focus on the dynamic changes in marketing strategies over time. This dynamic focus has
several interesting implications for marketing managers:
One implication is that the consumer market and the environment must be monitored continuously. The
Wheel of Consumer Analysis implies that no factor stays constant; only change, through continual
reciprocal interaction, is constant. Marketers must stay "on top" of these changes and be ready to react and
adapt to the most important of them. In fast moving markets, this creates quite a challenge for marketing
managers.
Consider the difficulties of keeping up with the rapid changes in the market for cellular
telephones. Once a high-tech plaything, cellular telephones are rapidly becoming a fixture in
American life and offer constantly expanding capabilities, such as cameras. According to a recent
article, changes in cell phone technology profoundly impacts how people work and lead their
lives, sometimes in unexpected and not always positive ways. (see Dennis K Berman, "You’re on
Candid Cellphone.," Wall Street Journal, September 30, 2003, pp. B1)
Of course, the answering machine and fax machine, both telephone technologies, have also have
profound impacts on how some consumers in society work and lead their lives.

Ask students to speculate about the possible longer-range effects of widespread use of cellular phones,
PDAs, etc.
For instance, people will find it increasingly harder to escape the office. They will always "be
available," on call around the clock, even on vacation or during commuting.

Challenge students to discuss how a change in one of the Wheel components might affect the other
elements. "How will being unable to escape the office influence people's affect and cognition, their
behaviors, and the environment?"
Changes in Marketing Strategies Over Time. Another interesting and somewhat paradoxical implication of the
WCA is that highly successful marketing strategies may bring on their own demise (successful strategies sow the
seeds of their own eventual obsolescence or failure).
This is especially likely if the successful marketing strategy has a substantial impact on consumers' affect
and cognitions, behaviors, and environment. As these components of the WCA system change and interact
they create additional changes in the Wheel components. Thus, the original marketing strategy comes to
face a different "world" in which it may no longer be appropriate or effective. A marketing strategy that
works today may no longer work tomorrow.
This suggests that, over time, marketing managers must continually "tune" or adjust their strategies to keep
current with the constantly changing components of the wheel model. We believe that the Wheel of
Consumer Analysis can help marketers analyze and understand these dynamic changes. You can make this
point in class with a number of examples from the real world.

For instance, ask students to consider how the marketing strategies for selling personal computers have
changed from the early 1980s to the present.
During this period, the market for personal computers exploded. Increasing numbers of
consumers became quite knowledgeable about computers (changes in affect and cognitions) and
more expert in using computers (developed skilled behaviors). Early marketing strategies relied
heavily on personal selling, since most potential customers were novices. But as consumers
became more knowledgeable and experienced, computers could be sold via alternative channels,
such as mail order, with little or no personal selling effort. Such an approach could hardly have
worked in the introductory period.

As another example, ask students to consider how the liquor industry in the U.S. has changed over the
past 20 years. (This is a good example to show different levels of analysis in applying the Wheel of
Consumer Analysis.)
American consumers' affect and cognitions (feelings, beliefs and attitudes) concerning drinking
began changing about the time their general concerns about health and fitness were increasing in
the 1970s. Their behaviors changed, too--less drinking, changes to lighter alcoholic beverages.
Consumption of spirits in the U.S. declined throughout the 1980s, dropping almost 6 percent in
1986 alone. As these trends developed, the social environment changed too as a function of many
individuals acting together (MADD--Mothers Against Drunk Driving, more enthusiastic law
enforcement, liability suits against bartenders, stronger penalties for driving while drinking). The
legal environment changed as many states increased the legal drinking age to 21.
In response, marketing strategies also changed, including the introduction of lighter, low alcohol,
and no alcohol beverages. Some companies presented ads urging responsible consumption. Some
companies have "kept up" with these changes and have profited, while the marketing strategies of
other companies have lagged far behind.
Levels of Consumer Analysis. Students need to understand that the Wheel of Consumer Analysis can be applied at
different levels. For example, the WCA can describe the factors that influence an individual consumer's behavior.
Or, the WCA can be used to describe the general influences on the aggregate behavior of a group of consumers' (a
market segment). The Wheel of Consumer Analysis can also be used at an industry level to describe forces
affecting an entire industry. Alternatively, the WCA can be used to describe the large-scale changes and influences
at a societal or cultural level. Illustrate this important point by presenting examples of dynamic changes OVER
TIME at each of these four levels.

For instance, select a major marketing strategy (such as building a new mall in a mid-size town). Ask
students to discuss its effects on individual consumers, on a market segment of many consumers, on all
other retailers in the area (industry level) and on the entire town and surrounding areas (societal level).
New technologies have effects at all four levels. Students could consider how microwave ovens,
VCRs, overnight delivery service, cellular phones, or personal CD and MP3 players have affected
individual consumers, segments of consumers, the respective industry, and society as a whole.

Alternatively, select a more specific marketing strategy (such as using lots of coupon sales promotions
to sell a food product, or using rebates to sell new cars). Ask students to describe some of the effects of
such strategies on an individual consumer, on a market segment of consumers, on the industry, and on
the entire society.
Consumer Analysis for Developing Marketing Strategy. The text emphasizes that developing effective
marketing strategies requires an analysis of the consumer/product relationship. In a thorough consumer analysis,
marketers would examine each of the elements in the Wheel of Consumer Analysis--consumers' affect and
cognitions (perceptions, emotions, attitudes, goals), consumers' overt behaviors (shopping, purchase, product use),
and consumers' environments (where or when the product is purchased, relevant social situations during product use,
the season or temperature or time of day during shopping).
Students should get practice in thinking about such analyses.

Select a company/product (wine coolers, or compact disk players, or some faddish article of clothing).
Then, have the class identify the affective and cognitive factors (product and brand attitudes), behaviors
(shopping and purchase, use of related products), and environmental factors (presence of other people
or time of day during purchase or consumption) that might be relevant for that market.

As students brainstorm potentially relevant factors in each category, jot their ideas on the chalkboard.

Force the class to identify the one or two most important factors in each category--affect and cognition,
behavior, and environment.
Point out that a marketer obviously cannot consider every possible influential factor in a consumer
analysis. There simply are too many. Thus, an important part of any consumer analysis of the
consumer/product relationship is to identify the one or two most important factors in each
category. These are the factors that should be analyzed in greater detail, perhaps with research
studies.

Build/draw a three-way matrix defined by the three categories of the wheel model (affect/cognition,
behavior, environment). A marketing strategy could be developed for each cell in the matrix.

Ask students to develop marketing strategy implications for two or three of the most important cells in
the matrix.
This in-class discussion will give students a general idea of what a useful consumer analysis might entail. It will
touch on many of the topics covered in the text. Moreover, this exercise will help students appreciate the
complexities of consumer analysis and the accompanying need to focus on the most important factors. Finally, this
exercise illustrates how a simple framework or model like the Wheel of Consumer Analysis can be useful in
organizing the many factors that should be considered by marketing managers.
Possible Class Discussion--More on Women and Guns. The opening example in this chapter concerns a purchase
of a handgun by a middle-aged woman. This example can stimulate a number of reactions from disapproval (all
handguns should be outlawed) to approval (all people should be armed to guard against crime). Various issues can
be discussed from market segmentation to social responsibility (anti-gun critics complain about the gun industry's
attempt to "market fear" to women, and contend that these tactics create more violence).

If you are brave, you might want to discuss this topic in class--it is sure to generate a lively and
interesting discussion. Below is some additional information about the topic of targeting women as gun
customers adopted from Carrie Goerne, "Gun Companies Target Women; Foes Call It 'Marketing to
Fear'," Marketing News, August 31, 1992, pp. 1-2.
Gun customers traditionally have been men, but this market is increasingly saturated, so some firearms
marketers have begun marketing guns to women. Currently about 15 to 20 million women own guns,
according to the National Rifle Association. In particular, young, single women concerned about their
personal safety are an attractive target market. Consider the first gun ad to appear in a general-interest
women's magazine (a regional version of Ladies Home Journal, in 1992.). The ad for Colt showed a
younger mother tucking her child into bed. Pictured below were two models of Colt semiautomatic pistols.
The headline read, "Self-protection is more than your right...it's your responsibility." The copy continued,
"You have a right to protect yourself in your home. Even more important you have the responsibility to be
there for those who depend on you."
Smith & Wesson (the company mentioned in the opening example) began marketing a LadySmith brand of
firearms in 1988 using a soft-sell campaign for which it received much criticism. The 1992 campaign is
more straightforward about implying it's OK today for a professional woman to own a gun. The
LadySmith pistol is a daintier version of the .357 magnum. It has special features designed specifically for
ladies, such as a smaller handle and more rounded edges. The trigger is easier to pull. One ad features a
young woman firing her LadySmith on a target range with the headline underneath reading "What Would
Mom Think Now?". Again, the appeal is to personal safety.
Finally, there is a new publication for women who like firearms, called Women & Guns. The magazine
started in 1989 and had a circulation of about 25,000 in 1992. Non-technical educational articles on safety
and handling a gun are aimed at the typical woman who is a novice gun owner. A survey of readers found
that 81% of women claimed they owned a gun for reasons of personal safety.
Critics of the targeting of women by gun manufacturers claim that companies are exploiting a current
climate of fear of crime among many Americans, and thereby are increasing the level of fear. According to
Jeff Muchnik, legislation director of the Coalition to Stop Gun Violence, "Part of the reason there is such a
climate of fear is because there are so many guns, but they [gun manufacturers] sell more guns by playing
on that fear." He continues, "Gun companies...are selling fear and they're selling the idea that guns will
keep you safe, and that simply isn't true." Some ads emphasize women's fear of being abused by men. But
Muchnik says, "There's a better solution to violence against women than making women more violent.
Shouldn't the focus be on making men less violent?"
But Kitty Beuchert, an assistant director on women's issues at the NRA says, "The fear is already there.
We're not the one's creating the fear. Open up any newspaper, and that will show why there's fear." A
Smith & Wesson spokesperson describes their marketing strategy, "There are brand extensions in a lot of
different product categories.... We identified a market need [women's interest in self-protection] and
developed a product [the LadySmith pistol] to meet that need." Students might discuss the social
responsibility of marketing guns to women (or anyone, for that matter).
In sum, handgun production increased over 40% from 1980 to 1990, and 58% of participants in an NRA
survey claimed that their last handgun purchase was for self-protection. What marketing strategies should
companies such as Colt and Smith & Wesson pursue?
PROJECT – CONSUMER ANALYSIS
An effective way to give students experience in thinking about and using the Wheel of Consumer Analysis is to
assign a project. Following is one we have used successfully.
This project is intended to give you practice in thinking about and applying Peter & Olson's Wheel of Consumer
Analysis model.

First, think of a consumer purchase decision you recently made. The purchase could be as simple as
buying a soda from a vending machine, or as complex as shopping for and buying an item of clothing or
a new stereo system. Just make sure that your memory of the events surrounding the purchase is
relatively clear and vivid.

Then, make a list of the major behaviors that you performed during this purchase situation. Try to
identify each specific behavior that you think was relevant to the purchase outcome. Place a check
mark next to the two or three most important behaviors.

Likewise, identify the key environmental factors, the relevant affective and cognitive states and
processes, and the elements of marketing strategy that were present in your purchase situation. Present
these in three separate lists. Place a check mark by those factors that you think had the most important
influences on the purchase outcome.

Finally, in a page or so, briefly describe how these four factors (behavior, environment, affect and
cognition, and marketing strategy) interacted in a reciprocal manner, over time, to produce the purchase
outcome.
This project can be handwritten (please write legibly). It should not be more than 4 pages.
NOTES AND ANSWERS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1.
Explain consumer affect and cognition, behavior, and environment. Why do marketers need to consider all
three in developing strategies?
Affect and cognition, behavior and environment are the three key elements for consumer analysis. Affect
and cognition are two types of mental responses consumers’ exhibit toward stimuli, behaviors are the
physical actions of consumers, and environments are all external forces that influence consumers.
Marketers need to consider all three elements because any of the three elements can be either a cause or an
affect of a change in one or more of the other elements. For example, affective and cognitive responses can
cause a change in behavior or behaviors can cause a change in affect and cognition. This concept of
reciprocity is explored further in question #4.
2. Explain the relationship between consumer environments and marketing strategy.
This is an important review question; students need to understand this point. From a consumer's
perspective, marketing strategies are part of the external environment. Thus, consumers experience a
marketing strategy (an ad, a new product or store, a personal sales pitch, a price change) as a part of their
environment.
The text, however, separates marketing strategies from the general environment and gives it a special status
in the Wheel of Consumer Analysis. Students should recognize that the general social and physical
environment influences marketing strategies. For instance, effects of a price rebate will be influenced by
the state of the economy, what promotions other companies are offering, as well as what the consumer's
friends have done.
3. Why must marketing strategies ultimately influence overt consumer behavior to be successful?
Marketing strategies must ultimately influence behavior for a firm to make sales and profits. Many
marketing strategies are designed to influence consumers’ affect and cognition, which (hopefully) will lead
to changes in behaviors, such as a purchase. It is critical that marketers to analyze, understand and
influence overt behaviors. For example, marketers need to accommodate changing consumer behaviors,
such as the fast food restaurants accepting debit and credit cards, since this is how consumers increasingly
want to pay. for purchases,
4. What are the implications of viewing consumer processes as a reciprocal system?
Reciprocity means that the casual influences between two concepts are mutual or bi-directional. For
instance, attitudes cause (influence) behavior, but behavior, in turn, causes attitudes (to form or change).
Thus, the influence flow between two variables is bi-directional.
Traditional scientific analyses of cause and effect relationships tend to consider causation as unidirectional.
For instance, attitudes either cause behavior or they do not. Typically, the reverse causal relationship-behavior causes attitudes--is not examined, at least not in the same study. Reciprocal causation--attitudes
and behaviors cause each other over time--is almost never considered.
The reciprocal model advocated in this text, encourages marketers to view consumer behavior as a
dynamic, continually changing process, in contrast to the more static perspective implied by the
unidirectional view of causation in most traditional models and treatments.
A basic goal of a marketing manager is to develop effective marketing strategies. Marketing strategies are
controllable and can be modified (within certain ranges, at least) by the manager. Thus, the marketing
manager usually looks at marketing strategies as the endpoint of an analysis and consideration of the other
factors.
Typically, managers will study consumers' affect and cognition, behavior, and environment first, in order to
develop an appropriate marketing strategy. Of these factors, it is often most useful to consider behaviors-what particular behaviors do I want my customers to perform? Then, the marketing manager would
consider the environment in which these critical behaviors occur and then determine the affective and
cognitive responses that facilitate the desired behaviors.
However, it certainly would be possible to begin a consumer analysis with a marketing strategy, perhaps
the current marketing strategy is being considered for a change. Then, marketing manager would be
interested in the effects of the strategy on affect and cognition, behavior, and the environment.
By considering all the factors in the Wheel of Consumer Analysis, and their interactions, in whatever order,
marketing managers can better understand their current and potential customers and can devise effective
marketing strategies.
5. Explain four levels at which consumer analysis can be conducted. Offer one example of how consumer analysis
could aid marketers at each level.
Answers will vary, but it is important to point out that consumer analysis can be conducted at the societal,
industry, market segment, and individual levels. Students will find it relatively easy to offer examples of
how marketers use consumer analysis at the individual and market segment levels. However, students may
struggle in applying this approach to the industry and societal levels. For example, at the societal level, it
is useful to discuss the importance of using consumer analysis to understand how a culture’s values change
over time. These macro dynamics can then be easily linked to more micro, managerial perspectives. A
good example in the U.S. is the increased level of patriotism following September 11.
6. Offer three examples of changes in a marketing strategy that led to changes in your cognitions and behaviors.
Answers to this application question will vary, of course, based on each person's personal experiences.
Students should easily identify influences of marketing strategies on how they think about and behave
toward products. Examples abound. Consider promotions for low fat cereal products, weight loss
programs, or exercise equipment (stair steppers are currently popular) which lead people to modify their
cognitions about and attitudes toward the product, and possibly change their purchasing behaviors.
Students should be able to describe in some detail these examples and how their cognitions behaviors were
affected.
7. In considering your answer to question 6, do you think there was anything unethical in the marketing strategies?
Ethical issues, while discussed in Chapter 1 should be addressed throughout the course. Students’
responses to question 6 should be considered against the Code of Ethics of the American Marketing
Association (see Highlight 1.3, pp. 12-13).
8.
Look up information on aging in the United States at the census website, http://www.census.gov. What changes
are taking place in the age of the population in general and in racial, ethnic, and gender groups? For what
levels of consumer analysis would this information be useful?
This application question is useful to encourage students to conduct cursory consumer analysis by
evaluating an aspect of the social environment. The benefit of this question is to facilitate discussion on
how to conduct consumer analysis at different levels. The census data will allow clear analysis at both the
societal and segments levels. For example, at the societal level, student should be able to confirm that as a
whole, the U.S. population is becoming older, as the average age continues to increase. Data are also
available for many subcultures, such as ethnic groups, Subcultures, in general, are synonymous with
market segments, so students will be able to look at a segment, Hispanics for examples, and explore age
trends.