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CHAPTER 23:
CONNECTING THE OCEANS AND HUMAN HEALTH
While marine animals and plants are most commonly used as sources of food, they also produce a vast array of chemical
compounds that can be developed into products with beneficial medical and industrial uses. However, marine organisms, such as
bacteria, algae, and viruses, can also be sources of human illness. Although these microorganisms exist naturally in the ocean,
human actions can lead to ocean conditions that greatly increase their growth, harming the health of humans, marine species, and
ecosystems. Significant investment must be made in developing a coordinated national research effort to better understand the links
between the oceans and human health, with research aimed at discovering new drugs and other useful products derived from
marine organisms, and detecting and mitigating outbreaks of disease and other harmful conditions. Efforts must also be aimed at
improving public awareness about how pollution and waste can contribute to the spread of seafood contamination and disease, and
can decrease the diversity of species that provide new bioproducts.
UNDERSTANDING THE LINKS BETWEEN THE OCEANS AND HUMAN HEALTH
While the topics generally included under the umbrella of Oceans and Human Health, such as harmful algal
blooms and pharmaceutical development, may at first seem to be unrelated, they are actually inextricably
linked. The health of marine ecosystems is affected by human activities such as pollution, global warming,
and fishing. But in addition, human health depends on thriving ocean ecosystems. A better understanding
about the many ways marine organisms affect human health, both for good by providing drugs and
bioproducts, and bad by causing human ailments, is needed.
The oceans sustain human health and well-being by providing food resources and absorbing waste from areas
of human habitation. For many years, the ocean’s carrying capacity for meeting both these needs was
assumed to be limitless. As we know today, this is not true. Scientists have reported that excessive human
releases of nutrients and pollution into the ocean, and a subtle, yet measurable, rise in ocean surface
temperatures are causing an increase in pathogens, primarily bacteria and viruses.1,2 These environmental
conditions can also promote excessive growth of microscopic algae, some of which can produce toxins that
are released into the water and air, and become concentrated in the tissues of fish and shellfish. When these
toxins are ingested or inhaled by humans, they present health risks ranging from annoying to deadly.
On the other hand, thousands of new biochemicals have been discovered in marine organisms, such as
sponges, soft corals, mollusks, bacteria, and algae. Furthermore, scientists believe only a fraction of the
organisms that live in the ocean have been documented, underscoring the vast potential of the oceans as a
source of new chemicals.3 These natural products can be developed not only as pharmaceuticals, but also as
nutritional supplements, medical diagnostics, cosmetics, agricultural chemicals (pesticides and herbicides),
enzymes and chemical probes for disease research, and for many other applications. Based on existing
pharmaceutical products, each of these classes of marine-derived bioproducts has a potential multibilliondollar annual market value.
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The use of marine organisms as models for human systems has also advanced biomedical research. The
diversity of life found in the oceans offers vast opportunities for the discovery of organisms that can be used
to investigate biological processes analogous to those found in humans. Of particular interest are primitive
vertebrates. Studies on the biology of these animals may offer insights into the evolution and physiology of
humans and other organisms. Although some of the most familiar marine animal models have been used by
researchers for decades, increased understanding of human biology can be gained by continuing to examine
new marine organisms.
A 1999 National Research Council (NRC) report recommended a renewed effort to understand the physical
condition of the ocean, its effects on humans, and possible future health threats.4 In a 2002 report, the NRC
also emphasized the beneficial value of marine biodiversity to human health, noting that underexplored
environments and organisms—such as deep-sea environments and marine microorganisms—provide exciting
opportunities for discovery of novel chemicals.5
Currently, two national programs are designed to enhance our understanding of the ocean’s role in human
health. The first is a joint program between the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
(NIEHS) and the National Science Foundation (NSF) called the Centers for Oceans and Human Health. The
Centers promote interdisciplinary collaborations among biomedical and ocean scientists, with the goal of
improving knowledge about the impacts of the oceans on human health. The second is the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) Oceans and Human Health Initiative, which will coordinate
agency activities and focus funding on ocean and health issues such as infectious diseases, harmful algal
blooms, environmental indicators, climate, weather and coastal hazards, and marine biomedicine.
In addition to these broad interdisciplinary programs, several other existing programs focus on one or more
specific subtopics. For example, ECOHAB (Ecology and Oceanography of Harmful Algal Blooms), a
program created by NOAA and NSF, provides a scientific framework designed to increase our understanding
of the fundamental processes leading to harmful algal blooms. Other agencies, including the Centers for
Disease Control (CDC), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and Food and Drug Administration
(FDA), administer research and management programs that address different aspects of the links between the
oceans and human health.
MAXIMIZING THE BENEFICIAL USES OF MARINE-DERIVED BIOPRODUCTS
The marine environment constitutes the greatest source of biological diversity on the planet. Representatives
of every phylum are found in the world’s oceans, and more than 200,000 known species of invertebrates and
algae have been documented. With so many organisms competing for survival in the challenging ocean
environment, it is not surprising that many organisms produce chemicals that provide some ecological
advantage. Animals and plants synthesize natural biochemicals to repel predators, compete for space to grow,
and locate potential mates. Scientists have shown that these chemicals can also be developed as human
pharmaceuticals and used for other biomedical and industrial applications.
Despite these potential benefits, the U.S. investment in marine biotechnology is relatively small. Japan, the
world leader in this field, has spent between $900 million and $1 billion a year for the last decade and has said
it intends to significantly increase this investment in the future. About 80 percent of the Japanese investment
comes from industry, with the remainder from government. By contrast, U.S. public investment in marine
biotechnology research and development in 1996 was around $55 million, and U.S. industry investment is
estimated at approximately $100 million annually. Yet even with this limited funding, U.S. marine
biotechnology efforts since 1983 have resulted in more than 170 U.S. patents, with close to 100 new
compounds being patented between 1996 and 1999.6
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Specific Applications
Pharmaceuticals
Since the 1970s, scientists have been isolating and characterizing molecules from ocean organisms that have
unique chemical structures and bioactivities. In recent years, several of these compounds have undergone
clinical testing in the United States as potential treatments for cancer. Progress has also been made in finding
treatments for other human ailments, including infectious diseases, cancer, chronic pain, and arthritis (Table
23.1).
Molecular Probes
Several
marine-derived
compounds,
explored
initially
as
potential
pharmaceuticals, are available commercially
as molecular probes. These probes are
special
chemical
compounds
that
researchers can use to study important
biochemical processes. Their value in
resolving the complexities of diseases has
often outweighed their economic and
medicinal
value
as
commercial
pharmaceuticals. Moreover, molecular
probes often offer attractive opportunities
for commercialization, with revenues
generated in a shorter time than
pharmaceuticals because lengthy regulatory
approvals are not required for research that
does not involve human subjects.
Nutrients
Box 23.1 Special Focus on Microbial Diversity
Microorganisms comprise a larger biomass than any other
form of life on Earth. In addition, they are the most diverse
group of organisms on the planet, having evolved to be
able to survive in almost all environments. In the ocean
they are the basis for food webs, even in areas that would
not normally be capable of sustaining life.
For example, in the deep ocean environment with no light
and few nutrients, chemosynthetic bacteria thrive on the
methane present in frozen gas hydrates. Near deep-sea
hydrothermal vents where temperatures can rise to over
300 degrees Celsius, bacteria are capable of using hydrogen
sulfide and carbon dioxide as their only nutrients and
producing enough organic compounds to support whole
vent communities, including tubeworms, fish, crabs,
shrimp, clams, and anemones.
However, microorganisms have not evolved simply to
synthesize molecules for food; they have also been shown
to produce a wide array of chemicals for other purposes.
Understanding how these organisms survive, both
individually and symbiotically, and why they produce such
unique chemistry, is essential to understanding their
therapeutic and technological potential. Yet, only a small
percentage of these organisms have been documented,
largely due to difficulties in culturing organisms from such
unique habitats. An expanded search for new microbes in
the ocean based on cooperation among a number of
multidisciplinary government programs could yield exciting
results.
Marine-derived nutritional supplements, or
“nutraceuticals,” present a relatively new
opportunity for research and development
in the application of natural marine
products to human health issues.
Nutritional supplements from plants have
been used for years, including commonly
known products such as St. John’s wort,
ginseng, and echinacea. A few products
from marine sources are also commercially
available such as xanthophylls from algae, which are used in nutritional supplements and vitamins for their
antioxidant properties. Although the use of marine natural products in nutritional supplements is limited at
this time, it represents a large potential market.
Industrial Uses
In additional to medicinal uses, chemicals produced by marine organisms have a wide array of industrial
applications. For example, some marine organisms, such as limpets, produce adhesive proteins that hold them
strongly to surfaces against the pull of tides and waves. Currently, researchers are examining the chemistry of
these adhesives to produce new glues that work in wet environments. Cold-water marine microorganisms are
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being studied because of chemicals they produce that can be used as detergents. These chemicals could help
produce commercial detergents that are more effective in cold water. Many sedentary marine organisms
produce anti-fouling chemicals that prevent algae and bacteria from clinging to their surfaces. Researchers are
investigating these chemicals as potential paint additives for ship hulls. If effective, these chemicals could
reduce the need for traditional anti-fouling paints that contain high levels of heavy metals, which can
contaminate bottom sediments. Several other applications of marine-derived substances are currently in
development, such as reaction enzyme catalysts and biochemicals used for detoxifying chlorinated
hydrocarbons and other pollutants.
Encouraging Interdisciplinary Marine Biomedical Research
Past U.S. efforts to discover marine biomedicines were of the collect-and-test type, with little attention given
to the evolutionary, environmental, and molecular biology of the species being tested. However, to realize the
greatest rewards for research investments, each species’ ecological, genetic, and physiological information will
need to be examined to understand how they adapt to environmental conditions. The unique diversity and
adaptations of marine life can help scientists understand the evolutionary development of biochemical signals
that regulate cell cycles and control resistance against diseases and infections.
Historically, structural limitations inherent in the federal agencies made it difficult to undertake truly
multidisciplinary science. NSF restricted funding for biomedical research because it is the primary focus of
the National Institutes of Health (NIH), creating difficulties in establishing combined environmental and
biomedical research programs. Likewise, NIH has generally supported direct medical research, thus
precluding ancillary studies of systematics, ecology, and species distributions. Until a few years ago, the NIH’s
ocean pharmaceutical programs had been very narrow, focusing almost exclusively on discovering and
developing new anti-cancer drugs. Thus, the very structure of the federal scientific support system has been
counterproductive to establishing the type of multidisciplinary programs required to advance the broader field
of marine natural product discovery and development.
Based on recommendations from the National Research Council and others, in the last two years, new
approaches for supporting marine bioproduct development have been established that allow the necessary
cross-disciplinary research to occur, including the NIEHS–NSF and NOAA programs mentioned earlier.
However, increased participation and cooperation from other federal agencies, including EPA, the Office of
Naval Research (ONR), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), CDC, FDA, and the
Minerals Management Service (MMS), each of which brings particular expertise and perspectives, will also be
helpful.
Recommendation 23–1. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Science
Foundation, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, and other appropriate entities
should support expanded research and development efforts to encourage multidisciplinary studies of
the evolution, ecology, chemistry, and molecular biology of marine species, discover potential
marine bioproducts, and develop practical compounds.
These efforts should include:
• a strong focus on discovering new marine microorganisms, visiting poorly sampled areas of the marine environment, and
studying species that inhabit harsh environments.
• encouragement for private-sector investments and partnerships in marine biotechnology research and development to speed the
creation of commercially available marine bioproducts.
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Managing Marine Bioproduct Discovery and Development
Based on the potentially large health benefits to society, the federal government should encourage and
support the search for new bioproducts from marine organisms, known as bioprospecting. However, before
wide-scale bioprospecting proceeds in federal waters, requirements need to be established to minimize
environmental impacts. Planning and oversight will help ensure that public resources are not exploited solely
for private gain and will help protect resources for future generations.
Individual states regulate the collection of marine organisms quite differently, sometimes requiring an array of
research permits to collect organisms and licenses to gain access to particular areas. Regulations that ban the
removal of specific organisms, such as corals and other sensitive species, often exist in both state and federal
protected areas. In protected federal waters, such as national marine sanctuaries, research permits are required
for all collections. However, bioprospecting outside state waters and federal protected areas is unrestricted,
except for certain species subject to regulation under existing legislation, such as the Endangered Species Act.
Both U.S. and foreign researchers, academic and commercial, are free to collect a wide range of living marine
organisms without purchasing a permit and without sharing any profits from resulting products.
On land, the National Park Service has successfully asserted the government’s right to enter into benefit
sharing agreements in connection with substances harvested for commercial purposes in Yellowstone
National Park. The National Park Service is in the process of conducting a full environmental impact
statement on the use of such agreements for benefit sharing in other parks. This practice could serve as a
model for the management of bioprospecting in U.S. waters.
Similar to other offshore activities, bioprospecting in federal waters will require appropriate permitting and
licensing regulations to protect public resources while encouraging future research. Furthermore, when
allocating use of federal ocean areas for bioprospecting, it is important that consideration be given to other
potential uses of those areas, including oil and gas exploration, renewable energy, and aquaculture. A proposal
for better coordinated governance of offshore uses is discussed in detail in Chapter 6.
REDUCING THE NEGATIVE HEALTH IMPACTS OF MARINE MICROORGANISMS
A host of microorganisms exist in marine waters, filling their roles in the ecosystem and generally causing no
problems to humans. However, the number and distribution of marine pathogens can change over time due
to many environmental factors. Human impacts, such as pollution or climate change, can produce even
greater fluctuations that threaten the health of humans, marine organisms, and the marine ecosystems on
which we all depend.
Harmful Algal Blooms
The term harmful algal bloom (HAB) is used to describe destructive concentrations of particular algal species
in ocean waters. These blooms are sometimes called red tides because the high algal density can make the
ocean surface appear red, but they may also be green, yellow, or brown, depending on the type of algae
present.
The Nature of the Problem
The underlying physical, chemical, and biological causes for most harmful algal blooms are not well
understood, but an increase in distribution, incidence, duration, and severity of HABs has been documented
within recent decades (Figure 23.1). In many areas, increases in nutrients in coastal waters, from point and
nonpoint sources of pollution, and higher numbers of invasive species released from ships’ ballast water
mirror the increase in HAB events, suggesting a possible causal connection.7, 8 However, others have
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suggested that the apparent increase in HAB events is simply a result of more frequent and effective
monitoring. Additional research is needed to understand why blooms form in a specific area, how they are
transported, and what causes them to persist.
HABs become a health concern when they produce high concentrations of potent toxins in ocean waters.
When these toxins are concentrated in fish and other seafood consumed by humans, they can lead to
paralytic, diarrhetic, neurotoxic, or amnesic shellfish poisoning. Most of these toxins cause harm only if
ingested; however, some enter the air from sea spray and can cause mild to severe respiratory illnesses when
inhaled. These health effects are not restricted to human populations; fish, birds, and marine mammals also
fall victim to red tide poisoning. The Great Lakes and large estuarine systems are also affected by HABs. Lake
Erie continues to experience blooms of a blue green alga called Microcystin sp. This alga is capable of
producing toxin compounds called microcystins that have been implicated in bird and fish kills and can result
in gastrointestinal problems in humans.
Annually, HABs are believed to cost the nation’s fishing and tourism industries more than $50 million
directly, with a likely multiplier effect that pushes the total economic loss to $100 million.9,10 This can be
catastrophic to low-income fishing communities, as witnessed in Maryland in 1997 during an outbreak of
Pfiesteria piscicida (a species of dinoflagellate) associated with widespread fish kills.11 Tourism was hurt by news
coverage of seafood poisonings, and reports of red tides had a swift and chilling effect on oceanside resort
visits, beach-going, and boating. Aquaculture can also be severely damaged by HABs, which can cause rapid
fish kills and result in harvesting moratoria.
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HABs are of particular concern in areas where the water contains high concentrations of dissolved nutrients.
These areas are incubators for many types of algal blooms, nontoxic as well as toxic. The nutrients create
conditions for rapid growth of large and dense algal blooms. When the algae die, their decomposition
consumes the dissolved oxygen that other organisms need for survival.
Improving Understanding, Detection, and Prevention
HABs constitute significant threats to the ecology and economy of coastal areas. While the preferred course
of action is prevention, effective treatments are often needed. The current availability of biological, chemical,
or physical treatments is extremely limited. The ecology of each bloom is different, and the required
environmental conditions are not completely understood for any particular algal species.
The most likely and immediate solution for reducing the number and severity of HABs is to control nutrient
inputs to coastal waters. (Nutrient pollution is further discussed in Chapter 14.) Prevention may also be
strengthened through careful facility siting decisions and tighter controls on invasive species. However, for
better long-term management, a comprehensive investigation of the biology and ecology of HABs will be
needed to increase our understanding of options for prevention, prediction, and control.
Better coordination would help leverage the relatively few but successful HAB research programs currently
being supported by the federal government (such as ECOHAB, MERHAB—Monitoring and Event
Response for Harmful Algal Blooms; NOAA’s National Marine Biotoxin program and HAB sensor
development and forecasting program, and efforts supported by the CDC, states, and others).
Improved monitoring techniques are also essential in mitigating the harmful impacts of HABs. Sampling
directly from the natural environment can help researchers compile an overall HAB picture, laying the
foundation for predictive modeling and forecasting. Numerous monitoring programs already exist, many of
which are funded by state governments. However, routine field sampling, combined with laboratory analysis,
is expensive and time consuming, and becomes more so as greater numbers of toxins and pathogens are
discovered over larger geographic areas. Monitoring technologies that can be stationed in aquatic
environments and continually measure for HABs are urgently needed. (Chapter 15 includes a broader
discussion of national monitoring needs.)
To cover larger areas, monitoring data collected from remote sensing platforms are essential. NOAA is
currently developing and testing techniques to forecast HAB occurrence and movement using satellite
sensors. The complementary development and deployment of satellites and moored sensors will provide even
greater coverage, cross-referenced ground truthing, and more frequent site-specific sampling. These elements
will add up to better data sets for monitoring of HABs. As more data are collected on HAB occurrences,
researchers will be able to more accurately predict future outbreaks by using advanced computer models and
taking into account the physical and biological conditions leading to HABs.
Marine Bacteria and Viruses
Bacteria and viruses are present everywhere in the ocean; in fact, each milliliter of seawater contains on
average 1 million bacteria and 10 million viruses. While only a small percentage of these organisms cause
disease in humans, they pose a significant health risk. Humans become exposed to harmful bacteria and
viruses primarily by eating contaminated seafood (especially raw seafood) and by direct intake of seawater.
Many, if not most, occurrences of high concentrations of pathogens in the ocean and Great Lakes are the
direct result of land-based human activities. Pollution and urban runoff lead to nutrient-rich coastal and ocean
waters that provide ideal conditions for the growth and reproduction of these microorganisms. With ever298
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increasing numbers of people living in coastal areas, along coastal watersheds, and inland along rivers that
ultimately drain into the ocean, waste and pollution have increased to a level that creates negative
environmental and human health-related consequences.
A comprehensive and integrated research effort is needed to further explore the relationship between human
releases of inorganic and organic nutrients to coastal waters and the growth of pathogenic microorganisms in
the ocean. Rapid monitoring and identification methods need to be developed so officials can warn
populations at risk when unhealthy conditions are present. Integration of these new methods into moored
biological sensors, the Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS, discussed in Chapter 26), and the national
monitoring network (discussed in Chapter 15) will allow for continuous data collection, and be particularly
helpful in areas of high recreational or seafood harvesting activity. This effort must include the input from the
state, regional, tribal, and local organizations that will implement localized monitoring programs and address
public education issues associated with marine bacteria and viruses.
Contaminated Seafood
Contaminated seafood is one of the most frequent causes of human disease contracted from ocean and fresh
waters, whether due to pathogenic or chemical contamination. Chemicals, such as mercury and dioxins that
exist as environmental contaminants and are concentrated in fish through bioaccumulation, continue to be a
health concern for humans, especially in terms of reproductive and developmental problems. In addition,
harmful algal blooms and pathogen outbreaks are becoming more common in local waters, increasing the risk
of seafood contamination. In addition to domestic sources, Americans are importing more seafood than ever
before.12 These imports often come from countries whose public health and food handling standards are
lower than in the United States.
To protect the safety of the nation’s seafood, rapid, accurate, and cost-effective means for detecting
pathogens and toxins in seafood are needed. As these techniques are developed they can be incorporated into
seafood safety regulations and surveillance efforts, particularly inspections of imported seafood and
aquaculture products.
Implications of Global Climate Change
In addition to the direct effects of human activities, marine microorganisms’ survival and persistence are also
strongly affected by environmental factors. In particular, global climate change has the potential to
significantly alter the distribution of microorganisms in the ocean. Pathogens now limited to tropical waters
could move toward the poles as sea-surface temperatures rise.
For example, the bacterium that causes cholera (Vibrio cholerae) has been implicated in disease outbreaks
fueled by the warming of coastal surface water temperatures. The intrusion of these warmer, infected waters
into rivers can eventually lead to mixing with waters used for drinking and public hygiene. An indirect
relationship has also been noted between climate change phenomena associated with the Bay of Bengal and
the incidence of cholera in Bangladesh. As the temperature in the Bay of Bengal increased, plankton growth
accelerated, which in turn created ideal growth conditions for bacteria such as Vibrio cholerae.13
Mass mortalities due to disease outbreaks have also affected major life forms in the ocean. The frequency of
epidemics and the number of new diseases in corals, sea turtles, and marine mammals have increased. It is
hypothesized that some of these outbreaks are linked to climate change. Not only are new pathogens possibly
present due to changes in water temperature, but temperature changes can also stress marine organisms,
making it harder for them to fight infections.14 More research is needed to understand the links among
climate change, pollution, marine pathogens, and the mechanisms of disease resistance in marine organisms.
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Progress through Research and Technology Development
Better understanding about the links between oceans and human health will require a commitment of
research funds to discover the fundamental processes controlling the spread and impacts of marine
microorganisms and viruses. In addition, closer collaboration between academic and private sector scientists
and federal agencies (including NIH, NSF, NOAA, EPA, ONR, NASA, CDC, FDA, and MMS) will be
needed to better examine these issues.
Recommendation 23–2. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Science
Foundation, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, and other appropriate entities,
should support expanded research efforts in marine microbiology and virology.
These efforts should include:
• the discovery, documentation, and description of new marine bacteria, algae, and viruses and the determination of their
potential negative effects on the health of humans and marine organisms.
• the elucidation of the complex inter-relations, pathways, and causal effects of marine pollution, harmful algal blooms,
ecosystem degradation and alteration, emerging marine diseases, and climate change in disease events.
New technologies are needed for improving biological and biochemical sensors that can continuously
monitor high-risk sites. These sensors must be quick and accurate so that information can be communicated
to resource managers and the coastal community in a timely manner. It is also important to incorporate sitespecific and satellite sensor data into the national monitoring network, discussed in Chapter 15, and the
IOOS, discussed in Chapter 26. Additional information about chemical and biological sensor needs is
presented in Chapter 27. Federal and private support will be particularly needed to develop monitoring and
mitigation technologies that can be implemented at state and local levels where these outbreaks occur.
Recommendation 23–3. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Science
Foundation, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, and other appropriate entities
should support the development of improved methods for monitoring and identifying pathogens and
chemical toxins in ocean and coastal waters and organisms.
This effort should include:
• developing accurate and cost-effective methods for detecting pathogens, contaminants, and toxins in seafood for use by both
state and federal inspectors.
• developing in situ and space-based methods to monitor and assess pollution inputs, ecosystem health, and human health
impacts.
• developing new tools for measuring human and environmental health indicators in the marine environment.
• developing models and strategies for predicting and mitigating pollutant loadings, harmful algal blooms, and infectious disease
potential in the marine environment.
INCREASING FEDERAL COORDINATION ON OCEANS AND HUMAN HEALTH
Several existing programs, including the NIEHS–NSF and NOAA programs, could form the nucleus of a
fully integrated, national oceans and human health program to address the many issues discussed in this
chapter. Most existing programs already involve significant interagency cooperation, which is essential for
effectively examining issues that cross federal agencies’ jurisdictional lines and for coordinating
multidisciplinary biomedical research. Any truly national effort to address the varied roles of the oceans in
human health will need to incorporate innovative basic and applied research with environmental regulations,
coastal management, biosecurity, and homeland security.
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Recommendation 23–4. Congress should establish a national, multi-agency Oceans and Human
Health Initiative to coordinate and sponsor exploration, research, and new technologies related to
examining the connections among the oceans, ecosystem health, and human health. NOAA’s
Oceans and Human Health Initiative and the NIEHS–NSF Centers for Oceans and Human Health
should be expanded and coordinated as the basis for this initiative.
The new Oceans and Human Health Initiative should:
• be implemented through both competitively awarded grants and support of federally-designated centers with federal, state,
academic, and private-sector investigators eligible to compete for funding.
• work with the National Ocean Council to review other relevant agency programs and suggest areas where coordination could
be improved.
• transfer new technologies into management programs that protect human health and the health of ocean and coastal
ecosystems.
IMPLEMENTING HUMAN HEALTH PROTECTIONS
In addition to achieving a better understanding of the links between the oceans and human health,
improvements in management are also needed. Most often this means protecting seafood safety and
maintaining clean coastal waters and beaches.
Seafood Safety
Seafood consumption in the United States is rising. Americans ate about 15.3 pounds of seafood per person
in 1999, compared to only 12.5 pounds in 1980. This is generally considered a positive development for
public health as the vast majority of seafood available to the American public is wholesome and nutritious.
However, as consumption rises, so does the possibility of public health problems from: contaminated
seafood, including biological hazards from bacteria and viruses; chemical hazards from toxins, such as
ciguatoxin and tetrodotoxin; and other contaminants such as mercury.
The FDA is responsible for ensuring the safety of seafood sold within the United State, including imported
seafood products. NOAA also monitors seafood through the Seafood Inspection Program that provides
voluntary, fee-for-service monitoring of domestic and foreign manufacturers, processes, and products.
In 1997, based in part on a National Research Council report on seafood safety, 15 the FDA implemented the
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. The HACCP system requires both U.S.
producers and foreign importers to analyze potential hazards in preparing, handling, and packaging seafood
and implement plans to control these hazards. However, a 2001 study concluded that several problems
existed with implementation of the HACCP system, both internationally and domestically.16 While the FDA
has been working to address these concerns, full implementation and enforcement will be needed to ensure
seafood safety. New seafood testing methods, which are faster and more cost-effective, can be used in
conjunction with HACCP regulations to further ensure seafood safety.
Aquaculture products make up a significant portion of the seafood sold within the United States and they are
accompanied by specific health concerns that must be monitored. Cultured organisms are often more prone
to disease than wild stocks. To protect against these diseases, high concentrations of pharmaceuticals can be
used, but these chemicals may then appear in surrounding waters, be concentrated in marine organisms, or be
consumed by people.
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States, territories, and tribes have a role in protecting their residents from the health risks associated with
contaminated fish and seafood caught outside the commercial industry by issuing Fish and Wildlife
Consumption Advisories, based on EPA guidance, for the general population as well as for sensitive
subpopulations. These advisories inform the public that high concentrations of chemical contaminants—such
as mercury, PCBs, chlordane, dioxins, or DDT—have been found in local seafood. The Advisories include
recommendations about limiting consumption of certain fish and seafood harvested from specified
waterbodies.
Better seafood screening, processing regulations, and public advisories are only part of the solution. Proactive
control of harmful algal blooms, bacteria, and viruses through reductions in point and nonpoint source water
pollution and control of invasive species is needed to ensure a safe food supply. Shellfish are at particular risk
of contamination because they feed by filtering large volumes of water. If that water is contaminated with
bacteria or viruses, shellfish become carriers of these pathogens. When outbreaks occur, coastal areas may be
closed to shellfishing, with serious economic consequences for fishing communities and repercussions for
human health.
Chemical contaminants such as methyl-mercury can also enter aquatic environments through atmospheric
deposition. These compounds can then accumulate in fish and other marine organisms. Limiting atmospheric
deposition of environmental contaminants to protect coastal waters and the nation’s seafood supply is
discussed in Chapter 14.
Coastal Water Quality
In addition to the danger of consuming contaminated seafood, human health can also be threatened by
recreational activities in and near unhealthy waters. Viruses are believed to be the major cause of swimmingassociated diseases, but bacteria, harmful algal blooms, and microbial pathogens, such as amoebae and
protozoa, also cause health problems in humans. Although recent programs at the federal and state levels
have been put in place to address these problems, success has been limited. In 2003, more than 18,000 days
of beach closings and swimming advisories were issued across the nation.17 The number of such actions
continues to rise, costing many millions of dollars a year in decreased revenues for tourism and higher health
care costs.
Almost all coastal states monitor beach water quality by measuring levels of certain indicator bacteria.
However, studies have shown that the presence or absence of these indicator species does not provide
information about all possible threats. In particular, concentrations of marine viruses are not well
characterized by indicator bacteria levels. Another problem with using microorganisms as indicators of
contamination is the lag time between sample collection, test results, and public notice. During this time
swimmers continue to be exposed to the contaminated water. As discussed above, improved testing
technologies and a well-coordinated federal effort are essential to support state and regional implementation
of appropriate monitoring. (A discussion of national monitoring needs is found in Chapter 15.)
Of course, coastal managers can best protect public health by maintaining clean coastal waters. Data indicate
that most beach closings and advisories are due to the presence of microscopic disease-causing organisms
that come from human and animal wastes.18 These wastes typically enter coastal waters from combined sewer
overflows, discharges of inadequately treated wastes from sewage treatment plants and sanitary sewers, septic
system failures, or stormwater runoff from urban, suburban, and rural areas. Recommendations on limiting
point and nonpoint source pollution in marine and freshwater environments are provided in Chapter 14.
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Public Education and Outreach
Reductions in pollution from urban area runoff, sewage outflows, agricultural pesticides, and many other
sources are needed to avoid creating harmful conditions in the oceans and Great Lakes. One important step
in achieving such reductions is public education (Chapter 8). Ocean-related educational campaigns frequently
focus on the impacts of pollution on marine animals. Signs stenciled on storm drains remind people that
“dolphins live downstream.” However, people must also become more aware that food supplies and
recreational areas are also downstream.
Education campaigns should also inform people of the potential risks from fish and shellfish contaminated
with bacteria, viruses, or chemicals. Timely and clear State Fish and Wildlife Consumption Advisories are one
way to educate the public about health hazards from seafood. Better communication among the seafood
industry, state officials, recreational fishermen, and consumers will also improve the effectiveness of seafood
safety programs and help prevent outbreaks of seafood-related illnesses.
Regional Dimensions
Ocean-related risks to human health are usually specific to certain local or regional areas. Different species of
algal blooms and bacteria are indigenous to particular regions, and both air and water quality are dependent
upon localized human activities. Because of this, the regional ocean councils and regional ocean information
programs, discussed in Chapter 5, are well placed to examine these issues and their potential cumulative
effects and work toward management practices that best protect the health of the people in their region.
Regional ocean councils could coordinate the development of performance assessments—for example, by
measuring the progress of point and nonpoint source control programs, monitoring introductions or
eradications of invasive species, and tracking water quality—to complement the regional ecosystem
assessments called for in Chapter 5.
Recommendation 23–5. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental
Protection Agency, and Food and Drug Administration, working with state and local managers,
should fully implement all existing programs to protect human health from contaminated seafood
and coastal waters.
Particularly, the federal agencies should:
• incorporate new findings and technologies, especially those developed within the Oceans and Human Health Initiative, into
monitoring and prevention programs.
• coordinate and increase interagency public education and outreach efforts in this area.
1
Harvell, C.D., et al. "Climate Warming and Disease Risks for Terrestrial and Marine Biota." Science 296 (2002): 2158-62.
Harvell, C.D., et al. "Emerging Marine Diseases—Climate Links and Anthropogenic Factors." Science 285 (1999): 1505-10.
3
Burke, L., et al. Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems (PAGE): Coastal Ecosystems. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute,
2000.
4
National Research Council. From Monsoons to Microbes: Understanding the Ocean’s Role in Human Health. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press, 1999.
5
National Research Council. Marine Biotechnology in the Twenty-first Century: Problems, Promise, and Products. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press, 2002.
6
Bruckner, A.W. "Life-saving Products from Coral Reefs." Issues in Science and Technology Online, Spring 2002.
7
Hallegraeff, G.M., and C.J. Bolch. "Transport of Diatom and Dinoflagellate Resting Spores via Ship's Ballast Water: Implications for
Plankton Biogeography and Aquaculture." Journal of Plankton Research 14 (1992): 1067-84.
8
Anderson, D.M. “Toxic Algal Blooms and Red Tides: A Global Perspective.” In Red Tides: Biology, Environmental Science and
Toxicology, ed. T. Okaichi, D.M. Anderson, and T. Nemoto. New York, NY: Elsevier, 1989.
9
Anderson, D.M., et al. Estimated Annual Economic Impact from Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) in the United States. Technical
Report WHOI 2000-11. Woods Hole, MA: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 2000.
2
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10
Hallegraeff, G.M. “A Review of Harmful Algal Blooms and Their Apparent Global Increase.” Phycologia 32 (1993): 7999.
Hoagland, P., et al. "Average Annual Economic Impacts of Harmful Algal Blooms in the United States: Some Preliminary
Estimates." Estuaries 25, no. 4b (2002): 677–95.
12
Degner, R., et al. Per Capita Fish and Shellfish Consumption in Florida. Industry Report 94-2. Gainesville, FL: Agricultural Market
Research Center, 1994.
13
Lobitz, B., et al. “Climate and Infectious Disease: Use of Remote Sensing for Detection of Vibrio cholerae by Indirect
Measurement.” PNAS 97 (2000):1438–443.
14
Harvell, C.D., et al. "Emerging Marine Diseases—Climate Links and Anthropogenic Factors." Science 285 (1999): 150510.
15
National Research Council. Seafood Safety. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991.
16
U.S. General Accounting Office. Food Safety: Federal Oversight of Seafood Does Not Sufficiently Protect Consumers. GAO-01204. Washington, DC, 2001.
17
Dorfman, M. Testing the Waters 2003: A Guide to Water Quality at Vacation Beaches. New York, NY: Natural Resources Defense
Council, 2003.
18
Ibid.
11
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