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Unit 1: Sociological Perspectives Ch 1: An Invitation to Sociology Ch 2: Sociologists Doing Research Ch 1 – An Invitation to Sociology • The nature • Sociology is the scientific study of _______ of sociology _______. Social structure is the patterned interaction of people in _______________. • A perspective is a particular ___________. The sociological perspective looks at the behavior of groups NOT _____________. • So sociologists look at the _________ __________ shared by members of a group or society. • They attempt to explain events w/o relying on personal factors – they look for ______________. • They don’t speak of an individual, but of ______. • Group behavior vs. individual behavior • Sociologists assume that social relationships aren’t determined by the particular _________________________ involved. • The mixing of the individuals creates a new whole w/ new _____________. • People’s behavior w/in a group setting can’t be ____________ from their personal characteristics. • Groups range in size from a family to an entire society. No matter its size, all groups encourage _____________. • It occurs partly b/c members are taught to ______ their groups’ ways. Members may truly value their groups’ ways or just be giving in to ________ ____________. • Sociological imagination • The ability of individuals to see the relationship b/w events in their ________ _____ + the events of their ________. • It helps us to understand the effects of events, such as ______________, on our daily lives + challenges conventional social wisdom (ideas that people _____ are true). • This enables us to better make our _____________ rather than merely ________. End Section 1 • Sociology’s • Began during the ________________ in late 19th century Europe. There was a great social upheaval origins in + large #s of people were moving from _______ to Europe _______. • Some intellectuals were concerned by the sudden changes. They looked for ways to ____________. These ideas led to the rise of sociology. • Auguste Comte (France): • “The __________ of Sociology”. • Explained his theories in Positive Philosophy. • Concerned w/ the ___________________. Believed that for society to advance, social behavior had to be studied _________. He attempted to create a science to do this which he called “sociology”. • Positivism is the belief that knowledge should be derived from ____________ ____________. • He distinguished b/w social statics which is the study of social ______ + social dynamics which is the study of social _________. • Harriet Martineau (England): • Translated Comte’s book into ________. • Contributed to research methods + ___________ theory. • Saw a link b/w ______ + the oppression of women. Believed that women’s lack of economic power helped keep them _____________________. • Herbert Spencer (England): • Introduced the idea of Social Darwinism which claims that in order for society to ______, the strongest, most fit members of society should be allowed to flourish + the ______, least fit should be allowed to die – based on the ideas of Charles Darwin. • So he opposed ________________. • Viewed positively by _____________ b/c he justified their exploitation of the poor. • Karl Marx (Germany): • Believed that social scientists should try to __________________, not just study it. • Stated that throughout history, societies have always been divided into _________ _________: __________ vs. __________ (haves, middle-class) (have-nots, poor) • The Bourgeoisie is the class that _____ the means of production. An individual w/in that class is a capitalist. The Proletariat was the __________________. • The Industrial Revolution _____________ b/w the classes. He believed the Proletariat would rise up + overthrow the Bourgeoisie + work for ________________ for all. This would lead to the gov.’t dissolving + a classless society - _________. He thought it would take numerous revolutions for this to happen. • Emile Durkheim (France): • Claimed that society exists b/c of a broad consensus (agreement). • Believed in _____________ times, societies were based on mechanical solidarity (social dependency based on widespread consensus of values + beliefs, _________________, + dependence on tradition + family). • Believed ____________ societies are based on organic solidarity (social interdependency based on a high degree of ____________ in roles). • Max Weber (Germany): • Claimed humans act based on their understanding of a _________. He believed an understanding of the _______________ of people in groups can be best accomplished through the method of verstehen (understanding social behavior of others by putting yourself in the _____________________). • Thought the key influence in industrialization was rationalization (the mind-set emphasizing _______, reason + ________) instead of tradition, emotion, + superstition prevalent in preindustrialized societies. • Sociology develops • The greatest development of sociology has in the US taken place in the ____ + most sociologists are from the ______. • Jane Addams • Focused on the problems caused by the ________________ among the social classes. Co-founded the ____ _____ in Chicago, a place for people (the ill, aged, poor, immigrants, etc) who needed assistance. • Also active in ________________ + peace movements. • Won the _______________ (1931). • W.E.B. DuBois • Black educator + ____________ for the rights of blacks in America + abroad. • Helped found the __________. End Section 2 • Perspective • Your perspective is the way you _______ the meaning of an image or event. It’s influenced by your ______________. It draws your attention to some things + ________ it to others. • A theoretical perspective is a set of assumptions ______________. It helps its supporters ________ their research. • ________ theoretical perspectives usually exist at the same time. • Sociology has 3 major theoretical perspectives: • ____________ • ________________ • ____________________ • Functionalism • An approach that emphasizes the __________ made by each part of society. • Parts of society include ________, economy, _________, etc… • Functionalists see the parts of a society as an ______________ – a change in one part leads to changes in other parts. For example, a major change in the economy leads to changes in the ________. • Assumes that societies tend to return to a state of _______ after some upheaval has occurred. • Believes that there is a consensus on ____ (Ex. Most Americans agree on the desirability of democracy + equal opportunity) which promotes a high degree of _______________. • Believes that most aspects of a society exist to promote a society’s __________ + ________ (Ex. gov.’ts, families, religions, etc…). • A function is a ___________ made by some part of a society. • Manifest functions are __________ + _________ contributions of an aspect of society. • Ex. Schools educate students. • Latent functions are ___________ + _________ contributions of an aspect of society. • Ex. Schools help develop ____________. • Not all elements of society make _________ contributions. Dysfunction refers to the __________ consequences of an aspect of society. • Ex. Gov.’ts can be very ___________. • Conflict perspective • An approach that emphasizes the role of _______, competition, _______, + constraint w/in a society. • Basically the ______ beliefs of functionalism. • Focuses on the ____________ among various groups in a society or b/w societies. • Believe that groups + societies compete in an attempt to preserve + promote their own special ________________. • It’s all a contest w/ the main ? being, “_____ ______________?” • Those w/ the most power (ability to ________________ of others) get the largest share of whatever a society considers to be __________. • Believe that social change occurs as the _______________ among conflicting groups shifts. • Symbolic interactionism • An approach that focuses on the __________ among people based on mutually understood __________. • Believe that groups exist only b/c their members _______ each other’s __________. • A symbol is something chosen to __________ something else. It can be an object, ______, gesture, facial expression, sound, etc… • Often it is something _________ used to represent something that is ______ ____________. • Believe that we learn the meaning of a symbol from the way we see others ________ to it + that once we learn the meanings of symbols, we base our ______ (or interaction) on them. We then use the meanings of symbols to imagine how others will _________ to our behavior. End Section 3 Ch 2 – Sociologists Doing Research • How do sociologists conduct research? • Like other scientists, sociologists gain knowledge by doing ____________. • Unlike most other scientists, sociologists are very ________ in their ability to set up ___________________ to replicate real-life conditions. • Sometimes it’s impossible to __________ the necessary conditions + sometimes even if they could, there are __________ preventing them from doing so. • There are 2 methods of research sociologists use: • ____________ – data based on #s. Makes up about ______% of research published in major sociological journals. • _________ – data based on narratives + descriptions. • Quantitative • research A survey is a research method in which information is obtained by asking many individuals a ___________ of ?’s. • Most ____________ research method in sociology. • Ideal for studying ________ #s of people. • B/c they can’t study an entire population (a group of people w/ certain ____________________), they must select a sample (a relatively ________ out of the total population under study). • A sample must be representative of the ________________. A representative sample is one that accurately reflects the ______________ of the population as a whole. There are 2 ways to ensure the sample is representative of the population: 1. Take a purely __________________. 2. ______________ pick individuals who represent all of the various ________ in the population being studied. • May be a questionnaire or an __________. Closedended questions are those w/ a limited, fixed set of ______ + open-ended questions are answered in the participants’ own words. See p. 40 for examples. Closed-ended Survey Research Advantages • • • • Closed-ended answers can be more precisely __________. Responses can be easily __________. Statistical techniques can be used to ______ _______ of the data. A ______ of responses can be collected. Disadvantages • • • • Surveys are ________ to produce + distribute. Responses are ______ to preset answers. Many people don’t respond to surveys, resulting in low cost _______________. The way a question is stated may _________ the answer given. • Secondary analysis is using ______________ _____________ for data collection + research purposes. • Types of precollected data include ______ ______ (ex. Census information), company records, voting lists, other scientists’ research reports, etc…. • _____________ – rarely used in sociology. • Qualitative research • Uses ________________________ data rather than numerical data. • Most of these methods are types of field research (research that takes place in a natural, ___________, setting). • Case studies are a research method that involves an ____________ of a single group, incident, or community. • B/c only a few people are studied, a single case study doesn’t ___________. However, they can generate new hypotheses that researchers can test. • Most ___________ used field research method. • Naturalistic observation: research method in which the sociologist observes the subject in a ________________ w/o ____________. • Researcher must avoid disturbing the people under study b/c they may change their ________ if they are aware of the researcher. • In the participant observation research method, a researcher becomes a __________________ being studied. The group may or may not be _________ they are being studied. End Section 1 • Know the chart on p.45! • Causation • The belief that events occur in _________ ways + that 1 event leads to another. • Social scientists look for the factors that cause social events to happen. • Social events are usually ______________ to be explained by a single factor. Multiple causation is the belief that an event occurs as a result of several factors working in ______________. • Ex. What causes crime? • _______________ • _______________ • _______________ • _______________ • _______________ • Etc… • Each factor involved in multiple causation is a __________. • Variable • • A characteristic that is __________________. Different types of variables: • A variable is either quantitative or qualitative. • Quantitative variable – a characteristic that can be _____________________. • Qualitative variable – a characteristic that is defined by its ______________ _________________ (ex: male/female, single/married/divorced/widowed, etc…) • A variable is also either independent, dependent, or intervening. • Independent variables – a characteristic that ______________ to occur. These are the variables a researcher can change so they can observe its ______. • Dependent variables – a characteristic that _________________. These are variables that change b/c of a change in the independent variable. • Intervening variables – a characteristic that _____________________ b/w an independent + dependent variable. Types of variables: Ex: You don’t spend much time studying + get a bad grade on your sociology quiz. But Ms. Griggs decides to curve the grades (Dream on!). What are the following variables: 1. Independent variable: 2. Is the independent variable quantitative or qualitative? 3. Dependent variable: 4. Is the dependent variable quantitative or qualitative? 5. Intervening variable: • Correlations • Sometimes, instead of looking for cause + effect, researchers look for correlations (measures of a ____________ b/w 2 variables or sets of data). ___________ ______________________________. • A positive correlation would occur if both variables or . • Ex: Grades + IQ • A negative correlation would be if one variable + the other . • Ex: Grades + absences. • It’s easier to show a ___________ than a ____________. • Standards for showing causation • Standard 1: 2 variables must be ____________. • Standard 2: All other _________ _______ must be taken into account. • A spurious correlation is an apparent relationship b/w 2 variables that is actually caused by a __________ that affects both of the other variables. • Standard 3: A change in the _____________ variable must occur before a change in the _________ variable can occur. • Sometimes it’s difficult to determine which occurs _____. End Section 2 • Steps for doing research • Sociologists use the scientific method which involves the recognition + formulation of a problem, the collection of data through observation + experiment, + the formulation + testing of hypotheses. • The steps are: 1. __________ the problem. 2. __________ the literature. 3. __________ hypotheses. - A hypothesis is a testable statement of relationships among variables. 4. __________ a research design. 5. __________ data. - Most sociological data is collected by asking people ?s, observing behavior, + analyzing _____________________. 6. __________ data. - Sometimes it can be ____________ in different ways. 7. ________ findings + conclusions. • Ethics in social research • Although there are principles for conducting research, scientists sometimes fail to live up to these principles – whether ________________ them (Ex. Nazi doctors’ experiments on concentration camp prisoners) or ___________ (Ex. The Stanford Prison Experiment). • Usually, sociologists routinely protect the rights of research subjects + avoid ___________ or harming them. • Conducting ethical research means showing _________; using superior research standards; reporting findings + methods ___________; + protecting the rights, privacy, integrity, dignity, + freedom of ____________________. • The ___________________________ has published guidelines for conducting research (It’s in the appendix of your textbook). • The researcher must balance the interests of those being _________ against the need for accurate, timely ________. End Section 3