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Objective 2
Organization of Living Systems
Chemistry
connection;
Elements
Found in
Living
Things
The student will
demonstrate an
understanding of
the organization
of living systems
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
Specific size and shape
•Metabolism - activities of the cells that provide for an organism's growth,
maintenance and repair
•Movement - Some organisms have obvious movement from muscular
contraction (e.g. swim, fly, run). Some move by beating of cilia or flagella, or
oozing like an amoeba. Others like corals and oysters do not move from place to
place.
•Irritability - response to a stimulus (e.g. light or chemicals such as food)
•Growth - increase in cellular mass, and/or increase in number of cells
•Reproduction - formation of another organism. Since viruses cannot
reproduce on their own without being inside a host cell, they are not regarded as
living organisms.
•Adaptation - ability to adapt to an environment, by either seeking a more
suitable environment, or by undergoing modifications to be better fitted to its
present surroundings
Living things are . . .
Organized into cells.
Grow and develop
Respond to the environment.
Use energy
Reproduce
Cells are organized into. . .
Tissues are made of cells
(not
)
Organs are made
from layers of tissue
Organ systems are organs
that work together
Organ systems that work
together make an organism
Reasons for Classification
1. To show relationships between groups
2. To provide a scientific name that is accepted and
communicated by scientists from different
countries
3. To identify organisms accurately (e.g. poisonous
organisms)
Binomial Classification
Scientific names
•
•
•
•
two-part names in Latin
first part- Genus (capitalized)
second part- species (never capitalized)
Scientific names are used because the
same plant or animal in different places
may have different common names.
Your scientific name is- Homo sapiens
Taxonomy-how to classify life
Biological Classification
Kingdom
Phylla
Class
Genus
Class
Order
Order
Family
Family
Genus
Genus
Species
Phylla
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Family
Genus
Class
Order
Order
Family
Family
Genus
Genus
Genus
Genus
Genus
Order
Family
Family
Genus
Genus
Genus
Genus
12 The bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana,
is most closely related to the —
F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki
G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax
H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens
J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus
Related in biological terms means
family, genus, species.
F spotted chorus frog,
Pseudacris clarki
G Asian flying frog,
Polypedates
leucomystax
H northern leopard frog,
Rana pipiens
J African bullfrog,
Pyxicephalus
adspersus
• Genus is always a
capital letter,
species is lower
case.
• Most closely
related would be in
the same genus,
Rana.
• ANSWER?
• H
The taxonomy divisions
from largest to smallest
are:
B- Genus
49 Which of these
classifications
Kingdoms (5)
is most specific?
Phylum
A Family
B Genus
C Phylum
D Order
Class
Order
Family
Genus
species
Animal
Fungi
Plant
Protista
Archebacteria
eubacteria
5 Kingdoms
Plantae
Animalia
Fungi
Protista
Archeabacteria
Eubacteria
Classification
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
•Mnemonic for Remembering the
Classification within a Kingdom
•King Paul Cries Out For Good Soup
Animal Kingdom
*multicellular
*have nuclei
*do move
*heterotrophic
*examples - sponge, jellyfish, insect, fish, frog, bird,
man
Animal Kingdom
Two divisions
Vertebrates- with backbones
Reptiles, mammals, fish, birds…
*people, whales, bears, dogs,
cats, frogs, parrots, monkeys etc…
Invertebrates – no backbones
Insects, crustacean …
*jellyfish, snails, sea urchins, lobster,
ants, cockroaches, etc…
Vertibrates are divided into
Cold Blooded
Warm Blooded
Do not generate internal heat
They generate internal
heat
(they sit in the sun to warm up)
Reptiles
People
Snakes, lizards
Dogs
Fish
Cats
Amphibians
Birds
Etc…
Etc…
Plant Kingdom
*multicellular
*have nuclei
*do not move
*autotrophic
*examples - multicellular algae, mosses, ferns,
flowering plants (dandelions, roses, etc.), trees, etc
Plant Systems
• There are 3 main plant
systems:
• Reproductive – the flower
structure
• Transport – the shoot and
roots and their xylem and
phloem
• Energy – the leaf and other
areas of Photosynthesis.
Leaf Tissue – What happens
where?
Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Carbon dioxide Plus Water Produces Glucose And Oxygen
Plants do photosynthesis and cellular
respiration.
Kingdom Fungi
*multicellular or single cell
*have nuclei
*mainly do not move from place to place
*heterotrophic (food is digested outside of
fungus)
*Made of Chitin
Feed on dead things – rotting logs etc
*examples - mushroom, mold, puffball,
shelf/bracket fungus, yeast, etc.
Kingdom Protista
1 cell
*have a true nucleus - eukaryote
*some move (cilia, flagella, pseudopodia); others don't
*some are autotrophic; others are heterotrophic
*examples - amoeba, diatom, euglena, paramecium,
some algae (unicellular), etc
Kingdom Monerans
*1 cell
*no true nucleus - prokaryote (genetic material
scattered and not enclosed by a membrane)
*some move (flagellum); others don't
*some make their own food (autotrophic); others
can't make their own food (heterotrophic)
*examples - bacteria, blue-green bacteria
(cyanobacteria
Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes are very simple cells they contain
a membrane (sometimes a cell wall), cytoplasm and
a strand of DNA.
Prokaryotic cells do not contain a membrane bound
nucleus.
Bacteria are prokaryotes.
The word "prokaryote" means "before the nucleus"
Bacteria
Cscope no longer uses Moneria
We know classify into two groups
1 Archeobacteria and Eubacteria
Archeo is ancient bacteria – can live in extreme
enviroments
2 Eubacteria is new bacteria
Outer coat is made of different compositions
8 Some bacteria benefit mammals
by helping with — • Kingdom Bacteria has
F growth
G defense
H digestion
J respiration
beneficial and harmful
members
• The best answer here
is H, since digestion
systems of mammals
contain bacteria.
• Bacteria found in the
respiratory system
usually result in
illness, which would
trigger the defenses,
not help them.
The building blocks of life
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells are more advanced cells.
These cells are found in plants, animals, and protists
The eukaryotic cell is composed of 4 main parts:
•cell membrane - outer boundary of the cell
•cytoplasm - jelly-like fluid interior of the cell
•nucleus - the "control center" of the cell, contains
the cell's DNA (chromosomes)
•organelles - "little organs" that carry out cell
functions
Animal
Cell
Cell Part
Cell membrane
Function
Nucleus
Chromosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Controls what enters and leaves the
cell
Controls what enters and leaves the
nucleus
Control center of the cell
Genetic information in the nucleus
Transport system in cell
Ribosome
Golgi Body
Organelle makes proteins
Organelle packages proteins
Vacuole
Stores water and/or waste
Lysosome
Mitochondria
Breaks down old cell parts
Organelle for cellular respiration –
provides energy
Nuclear membrane
Plant Cells
*These are only in plant cells, not animal cells or bacteria
Chloroplasts –organelle
responsible for
photosynthesis
Cell Walls – a structure
outside of the membrane
to provide support
Large vacuoles to store
extra water
Plant
Cell
Pant cells contains a cell wall, chloroplasts, and a very large vacuole,
(animal cells do not have these organelles)
Why do plants need large vacuoles?
•ANSWER: This is where food and water are stored.
52 Compared to annual rings of trees
that have experienced years of
sufficient rainfall, the annual rings of
trees that have experienced a dry
period will —
These would
F be softer
indicate
G grow at a faster rate
more water,
not less
H be thinner
J photosynthesize at a faster rate
Transporting into Cells Diffusion
Osmosis is
the diffusion
of H2O
• Passive movement from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration is
diffusion.
• The diffusion of water is called osmosis.
What is Active Transport?
Energy is used to move selected molecules into a
cell, even if they are at a low concentration.
34 When a sea urchin egg is removed from the
ocean and placed in freshwater, the egg swells
and bursts. Which of these causes water to
enter the egg?
F Coagulation Means to clump together – Incorrect
G Sodium pump
Sodium is not being moved –
Incorrect
H Active transport The
egg would not use energy
to do this since it kills the cell.
J Osmosis
This is the movement of water from an area of
high concentration (the fresh water) to low
concentration (inside the Salt Water Urchin Egg)
Cellular Respiration
• C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O
• Occurs in mitochondria of all
living things
Cell Reproduction
The Cell Cycle is the life cycle of a cell
It has two parts. interphase and reproduction
Mitosis is nuclear division plus cell division, and produces
two identical daughter cells – Diploid – double strand DNA
Meiosis is the type of cell division by which germ cells
(eggs and sperm) are produced. Meiosis involves a
reduction in the amount of genetic material. It creates
genetic diversity. It Produces 4 non-identical cells – Haploid
-½ DNA
Interphase is the process of growing and
functioning.
Mitosis
1
2
the chromosomes start to
gradually shorten and thicken.
chromosome have divided into 2
chromatids, joined at the centromere.
They begin to move towards the equator of
the cell.
the centromeres attach to threads of a
spindle then pull apart from one
another and move towards opposite
ends of the cell.
3
4
new nuclear membrane begins to
form ll into 2 new cells
26 If a cat has 38 chromosomes in each of
its body cells, how many chromosomes will
be in each daughter cell after mitosis?
•
•
•
•
F 11
G 19
H 38
J 76
H
Mitosis is the normal division of any body cell, so
the chromosomes replicate exactly and then
separate into two identical cells. So the answer is
Genetics – How traits are inherited
• Gregor Mendel- Father of Genetics, he
experimented with pea plants.
• Dominant traits always are visible, and are represented by
capital letters.
• Recessive traits are hidden unless both alleles are the
recessive one -lower case – tt or rr
• At least one pair of alleles determines the trait in genetic
inheritance.
Homozygous both are the same – TT or RR
Heterosygous they are different – Tt or Rr
Phenotype is what you see
Phenotype refers to what is visible –
the dominant trait or the recessive trait.
• How do you know the
phenotype?
•
• LOOK!!
• Color of hair or eyes, height- etc
Genotype –
actual combination of alleles (genes)
Only 3 possibilities;
BB = Homozygous Dominant
Bb = Heterozygous
bb = Homozygous recessive
You must look at inheritance patterns to find out.
Punnett Squares
d
d
D
Dd
Dd
d
dd
dd
D
d
D
DD
Dd
d
Dd
dd
Heterzygous & Heterozygous
Heterzygous & Homozygous Recessive
D
d
D
DD
Dd
D
DD
Dd
Homozygous Dominant &
Heterozygous
D
D
d
Dd
Dd
d
Dd
Dd
Homozygous Recessive &
Homozygous Dominant
Pedigree shows the Family Tree
Colorblindness Inheritance
Parents: Father has; Mother is a Carrier
Male Parent
Male Colorblind
Male
Male
Male Normal
Female
Female Parent
Carrier
Female ?
Male
Female
Male Colorblind
Female
The Stuff of Life
• The structure of DNA is called a double helix, or
twisted ladder
• The base Guanine always pairs to Cytosine.
Adenine pairs to Thymine.
• Except RNA – U is used instead of T
• Mutations are mistakes in the coding.
DNA
Replication the process
of copying DNA
DNA is formed of
nucleotides, which have 3
parts; a sugar, a phosphate
and a nitrogen base make up
a nucleotide.
The 4 different nitrogen
bases of DNA are;
Adenine,
Thymine,
Cytosine
Guanine.
They pair to form the rungs
of the ladder.
Transcription and Translation
Transcription . . .
the messenger RNA reads
the DNA in the nucleus
Then it leaves the nucleus
to take the information to
the ribosome.
The DNA then wraps back
up until next time.
Translation . . . Code into words
• mRNA takes the code from the
nucleus to the Ribosome
• It pairs with Transfer RNA to put
Amino Acids into chains called
proteins.
• mRNA pairs to tRNA in the
ribosomes
• This protein building is called
TRANSLATION.
• *There is no thymine found in RNA, instead there is
a similar compound called uracil.
What does this chart represent?
It says codons, and
has U instead of T, so
it must be mRNA.
53 The table shows a comparison of some
amino acids found in cytochrome c. The
two organisms in the table that are most
closely related are —
A Q and T
B R and S
C Q and R
D Q and S
Genetic Code
• All of the information to make a new
organism is contained in the
chromosomes of the cell.
• Chromosomes are made of tightly
coiled DNA or Deoxyribonucleic
Acid.
• Chromosomes contain genes each of
which codes for a single protein.
• There are hundreds to thousands of
genes on each chromosome.
To be closely related means the amino acid
composition should be almost the same,
since that is what the DNA is coding.
 Between Q and T, only 4 levels are
the same –
 Between R and S only 4 levels are
the same –
 Between Q and S 5 of the levels
are the same, but –
 Between Q and R 5 of the levels
are the same and differ in the other
2 by a smaller percent. Answer:
Not A
Not B
Not D
C
What is the DNA base pair rule?
24 If the template of a strand of
DNA is 5' AGATGCATC 3', the
complementary strand
will be —
F 3' TCTACGTAG 5'
G 5' CTACGTAGA 3'
H 3' AGATGCATC 5'
J 5' AGACGTCTA 3'
In DNA A to T and T to A,
C to G and G to C
5' AGATGCATC 3‘
TCTACGTAG
• Base pair each
letter by the
above rule.
• So the answer is:
• F
38 In DNA, which of the following
determines the traits of an
organism?
F Amount of adenine
G Number of sugars
This is only one of the 4 nitrogen
bases, it can’t code for anything by
itself.
Every nitrogen base is attached to a sugar,
.
so this is not correct
H Sequence of nitrogen
Bases
Correct
J Strength of hydrogen
bonds
Hydrogen bonds strength does not
change enough to code for trait
changes.
For more information on body systems go to
http://www.innerbody.com/image/skelfov.html
Homeostasis
This is the maintenance of the normal
operating conditions of an organism.
The body must maintain a balanced state:
body temperature, pulse rate, blood pressure, blood
sugar, urine output, digestive absorption, metabolism
rate, growth rate and hormone levels
Integumentary System
Skin, Nails & Hair
The skin is the largest organ in the body: 12-15% of body
weight.
• mucous membranes that line the mouth, etc
• Two distinct layers occur in the skin: the dermis and
epidermis.
• for protection, temperature regulation, sensory
reception, biochemical synthesis, and absorption.
Skeletal System
Vertebrates have developed an
internal mineralized endoskeleton
composed of bone and/or
cartilage.
Bones are the support
system & structure of
the body
*Make blood cells
*Allow
movement
;
Muscles are on the outside
of the endoskeleton.
Note- Sharks, and rays have skeletons
composed entirely of cartilage
Structural System – Muscles
*3 types of muscles
Smooth, involuntary
Striated, voluntary
Cardiac, heart muscle
*Allow for movement
*Attached by tendons
above and below joints
17 Which structure
in the upper arm is
responsible for
raising the lower
arm?
A1
B2
C3
D4
3
1 or 2 is used to lower the arm
4 is a bone not a muscle
Nervous System
Consists of brain, spinal chord, nerves
Nerve cells send and receive information
Voluntary- you control and choose
Involuntary- allows parts to keep functioning
without you knowing
Nervous System
Nerve cells have 3 parts:
Axon – Sends signal
Cell Body – controls cell
functions
Dendrite – Receives
signal from another
*Synapse
space between cells
Digestive System
Animals are heterotrophs,
they must absorb nutrients
or ingest food sources.
The majority of animals,
use a mouth to ingest food.
.
Circulatory System
This
system helps to
connect many other systems
as it provides the transport of
substances from one organ to
another.
Every
cell must touch a
blood vessel to take in what
it needs and get rid of waste.
Arteries
carry blood away
from the heart and veins
carry it back to the heart.
The
heart pumps the blood
Circulatory System - 2
The top parts of the heart
receive blood – Atrium
The bottom two are very
muscular and pump the
blood – Ventricles
Two contractions,
right ventricle pumps to the lungs, and the
left ventricle pumps to the body and brain.
29 Nutrients from digested food move from
the digestive system directly into the —
Endocine system
does not
transport
anything. So . . .
A circulatory
system
B integumentary
Excretory system
system
gets rid of waste
CO2 and H2O,
C excretory
not food. So . .
system
Integumentary
D endocrine
system holds
organs and
system
The Circulatory System
tissues in place.
So. . .
carries everything to every
cell, so it is . . C
The Respiratory System and Gas
Exchange
A supply of oxygen is required for the aerobic
respiratory.
There must be an exchange of gases: carbon
dioxide leaving the cell, oxygen entering.
Animals have organ systems
involved in facilitating this
exchange as well as the
transport of gases .
Reproductive System
The ability to reproduce one self is a
characteristic of all living things.
Sexual reproduction produces offspring that
are genetically different from their parents.
Asexual reproduction produces offspring
genetically identical to their parent.
The medulla, part of the brain stem, reacts
quickly to increased levels of CO2 in the
blood and stimulates a response from the —
A excretory system
B immune system
C respiratory system
D integumentary system
Increased respiration gets rid of excess CO2
Immune System - 1
•
•
•
Your immune system protects you from
infections and illness
1st Order Non-specific includes skin,
mucous membranes, cilia of trachea and
bronchi, stomach acid, tears
2nd Order includes the inflammatory
response (swelling, redness due to
histamine release), fever, white blood
cells such as phagocytes and
macrophages destroying the pathogens
and infected tissue cells.
Bacterial Infection
Most bacteria are beneficial to living organism, even
necessary, but some are harmful. Bacterial
infections are treated with antibiotics. They can be
killed since they are alive.
Bacteria are living cells and can multiply very rapidly.
Inside the body they attack tissues and release poisons or toxins.
Diseases caused by bacteria include:
•food poisoning, or salmonella
•cholera
•typhoid
•whooping cough
Bacteria
• Bacteria can cause illnesses too, however
90% of all bacteria is helpful, NOT harmful.
• Without bacteria, you would not be able to
make or eat cheese or ice cream. Without
them, you would be ill most of the time.
• Strep Throat and Staph infections are
examples of bacterial infections.
Viral Illness
Viruses are specific to their hosts. They can only attack specific
cells, and not all viruses can pass between different species
(though some can).
Rabies, for instance, can be passed from animal to human. HIV is
a virus that seems specific to humans.
The common cold is a virus that attacks cells of the respiratory
track (hence the coughing and sneezing and sniffling).
HIV virus specifically attacks white blood cells.
Measles, mumps, colds, influenza, Cold Sores, mononucleosis, EpsteinBarr virus are all illnesses that are caused by a virus.
Virus
Viruses are made of DNA and a protein coat, since they do
not actually grow, reproduce (on their own) or carry out
other life functions, they are not considered to be living
organisms.
They use other organism’s cells to reproduce.
HIV Virus attaching to the helper T-cells
j)
How HIV infects cells
HIV infects an immune system cell, the T Helper Cell.
Once infected, the T-Helper cell turns into an HIV replicating
cell.
There are 1 million T-cells per one milliliter of blood
HIV will slowly reduce the number of these cells until the
person develops the disease AIDS.
HIV Infection
1 - HIV enters the host by attaching to host receptors. It is as if the virus
has a specific key that only works on the host cell with the right lock.
2 - The viral RNA and core proteins are released into the cytoplasm
where reverse transcription converts the viral RNA to DNA..
3 - Viral DNA, now double stranded is transported into the nucleus.
In the nucleus, the enzyme called integrase fuses it with the host
cell's normal DNA. Viral DNA can persist within the cell's DNA for many years in a
latent state, which further complicates efforts to treat or cure the disease.
4 - The RNAs are transported to the cytoplasm and the golgi
apparatus where their message is used to create viral proteins,
which will become part of the completed virus.
5 - Using the proteins assembled from the golgi apparatus and the
completed viral RNA, the mature virus buds off from its host cell.
6-The process of budding destroys the host cell.
Treating viral infections
Viruses are not alive so you cannot kill them.
(You have to treat the symptoms or prevent replication)
Drugs such as AZT by inhibiting the function of reverse
transcript, thus preventing the virus from converting the
RNA to DNA.
Another enzyme, protease is needed to
assemble the proteins. Protease inhibitors
are another drug used to combat AIDS.
6 Most viruses infect a specific kind of
cell. Which of the following are infected
by the human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV)?
F Helper T cells
G Liver cells
H GABA-receptor cells
J Red blood cells
Ask yourself, which cell type deals
with immunity?
F Helper T cells
G Liver cells
H GABAreceptor cells
J Red blood
cells
• Answer? F
Helper T cells.
• All the rest are
body cells with
specific jobs that
do not relate to
immunity.
Cells Alive
Http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/index.htm
Cancer
When cells reproduce out of control tumors are
formed. It may or may not be malignant (the
type that spreads and kills).