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chapter 9
I. What is learning?
Definitions
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior due to
experience
Classical conditioning— learning through reflexively
responding to things that happen to us
Operant conditioning— learning through consequences
of our behavior
Observational learning— learning through observing
what others say and do
II. Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning
The process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires
the capacity to elicit a response through association with a
stimulus that already elicits a similar response
Associative learning: there is an association between
environmental stimuli and the organism’s responses
AKA: Respondent conditioning; Pavlovian conditioning
Reflex
An automatic
stimulus-response
connection
Inborn
Example: salivation
New reflexes from old
Unconditioned
response (UR)
The reflexive response to
a stimulus in the absence
of learning
Unconditioned stimulus
(US)
Elicits a response in the
absence of learning
New reflexes from old
(cont’d)
Through classical conditioning a neutral stimulus is
then regularly paired with an unconditioned
stimulus
New reflexes from old
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An initially neutral stimulus that
comes to elicit a conditioned
response after being paired with an
unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response
(CR)
A response that is elicited by the
conditioned stimulus
Occurs after the CS has been
associated with the US
Is usually similar to the US
(cont’d)
Extinction
The weakening and
eventual disappearance of a
learned response
In classical conditioning, it
occurs when the
conditioned stimulus is no
longer paired with the
unconditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous recovery: the
reappearance, after a rest
period, of an extinguished
conditioned response
Stimulus generalization
In classical conditioning, occurs when a new
stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus
elicits the conditioned response
Stimulus discrimination
The tendency to respond differently to two or more
similar stimuli
Occurs when a stimulus similar to the conditioned
stimulus fails to evoke a conditioned response
Video Clip from:
The Office

http://www.spike.com/videoclips/0jnov0/the-office-the-jim-trainsdwight
III. Classical conditioning in
humans
Learning to fear
Phobia: an intense irrational fear
Fear is classically conditioned
Little Albert
Research conducted by Watson and Raynor in 1920
“Little Albert” was conditioned to be afraid of white
rats by pairing the neutral stimulus (rats) with an
unconditioned stimulus (loud noise).
Within days, Albert was afraid of rats, and his fear
generalized to other furry objects.
Unlearning fear
Counter conditioning (AKA: systematic
desensitization)
The process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus
that elicits an incompatible response.
Another child’s fear of rabbits was removed by pairing rabbits
with a stimulus that elicited happiness.
Health problems and
classical conditioning
Many classically conditioned health problems
are successfully treated with biofeedback
therapy
Asthma
Headaches
High blood pressure
Ulcers
Learning to like
Where do sentimental feelings come
from?
Objects have been associated in the
past with positive feelings.
IV. Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning
The process by which a response
becomes more or less likely to occur
depending on its consequences
Consequences of behavior
A neutral consequence
neither increases nor
decreases the probability
that the response will
recur.
Reinforcement:
strengthens the response
or makes it more likely to
recur
Punishment: weakens a
response or makes it less
likely to recur
Reinforcement
The process by which
a stimulus strengthens
or increases the
probability of the
response that it
follows.
Primary reinforcers are inherently
reinforcing and typically satisfy a
physiological need.
Secondary reinforcers are stimuli
that have acquired reinforcing
properties through associations
with other reinforcers.
Edward Thorndike’s
puzzle box
Thorndike said
that behaviors
followed by
good outcomes
are
strengthened,
and behaviors
followed by bad
outcomes are
weakened
B.F. Skinner’s operant
conditioning
Types of reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
When a pleasant consequence
follows a response, making the
response more likely to recur.
Shaping: Teaching complex
behaviors by reinforcing
successive approximations of a
desired response
Negative reinforcement
When an unpleasant consequence
is removed following a response,
making the response more likely
to recur.
Punishment
The process by which a
stimulus weakens or
reduces the probability
of the response that it
follows
Primary punishers are inherently
punishing.
Secondary punishers are stimuli
that have acquired punishing
properties through associations
with other punishers.
Types of punishment
Positive punishment
When an unpleasant consequence
follows a response, making the
response less likely to recur.
Negative punishment
When a pleasant consequence is
removed following a response,
making the response less likely to
recur.
Behavior modification
The application of
operant conditioning
techniques
to teach new responses
to reduce or eliminate
maladaptive or problematic
behavior
Also called applied
behavior analysis
Video Clip from:
The Big Bang Theory

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gu
roaQRFsX4
V. Observational learning
Observational learning
(modeling)
Learning new responses by
observing the behavior of
another rather than through
direct experience.