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Learning Learning • • • • Learning by Association: Classical Conditioning Changing Behavior Through Reinforcement and Punishment: Operant Conditioning Learning by Insight and Observation Using the Principles of Learning to Understand Everyday Behavior LEARNING • Learning – a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge resulting from experience Learning Conditioning Classical Conditioning Observational Learning Operant Conditioning Insight LEARNING • Some famous learning theorists: (clockwise from top right) Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, B. F. Skinner Learning by Association: Classical Conditioning LEARNING BY ASSOCIATION: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • Classical conditioning – learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behavior LEARNING BY ASSOCIATION: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THE PERSISTENCE AND EXTINCTION OF CONDITIONING • Generalization – The tendency to respond to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus • Discrimination – The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar but not identical THE ROLE OF NATURE IN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • • Behaviorists argued that conditioning is based entirely on experience, and that nature plays no role. Psychologists have found, however, that nature can influence the way associations are formed in some instances of classical conditioning. – Nature influences the classical conditioning processes involved in the learning of phobias, in the development of taste aversions, and in post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSD). THE ROLE OF NATURE IN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • • • Phobia – a strong and irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or situation – We are more likely to develop phobias related to objects that were harmful in our evolutionary past. Taste aversion in food conditioning – Potentially harmful associations are learned very quickly. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – Strong associations are formed with stimuli related to traumatic events. LEARNING BY ASSOCIATION: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • Key Takeaways – In classical conditioning, a person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) with a stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, or US) that naturally produces a behavior (the unconditioned response, or UR). As a result of this association, the previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the same response (the conditioned response, or CR). – Extinction occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US, and the CR eventually disappears, although it may reappear later in a process known as spontaneous recovery. LEARNING BY ASSOCIATION: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • Key Takeaways, continued – Stimulus generalization occurs when a stimulus that is similar to an already-conditioned stimulus begins to produce the same response as the original stimulus does. – Stimulus discrimination occurs when the organism learns to differentiate between the CS and other similar stimuli. – In second-order conditioning, a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with a previously established CS. – Some stimulus/response pairs are more easily conditioned than others because they have been particularly important in our evolutionary past. OPERANT CONDITIONING Changing Behavior Through Reinforcement and Punishment OPERANT CONDITIONING • Operant Conditioning – learning based on the consequences of behavior – may involve the learning of new behaviors HOW REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR • Edward L. Thorndike – First scientist to systematically study operant conditioning – Observed cats trying to escape from puzzle boxes – Developed law of effect: • Responses that produce a pleasant outcome are likely to be repeated in a similar situation. • Responses that produce an unpleasant outcome are less likely to be repeated in a similar situation. • B. F. Skinner – Expanded on Thorndike’s ideas to develop a more complete set of principles to explain operant conditioning – Created specially designed environments called operant chambers or Skinner boxes to study learning systematically HOW REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR • Operant chamber or “Skinner box” – Cage large enough for a rodent or bird – Contains a bar or key that the organism can press or peck to release food or water – Contains a device to record the animal’s responses HOW REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR HOW REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR • Positive reinforcement is a more effective way to change behavior than is punishment – Punishment creates only a temporary change in behavior. – Punishment creates a negative and adversarial relationship with the individual providing the punishment. CREATING COMPLEX BEHAVIORS THROUGH OPERANT CONDITIONING • Continuous reinforcement – A response is reinforced each time it occurs. • example: Each time a dog rolls over, it receives a biscuit. – Leads to rapid initial learning, but also to poor resistance to extinction • Partial (or intermittent) reinforcement – A response is sometimes reinforced, sometimes not. • example: When you hold a door for someone, sometimes you are reinforced with a smile or a “thank you,” but sometimes you aren’t, – Leads to slower initial learning, but also to greater resistance to extinction CREATING COMPLEX BEHAVIORS THROUGH OPERANT CONDITIONING CREATING COMPLEX BEHAVIORS THROUGH OPERANT CONDITIONING • • Schedules based on the number of responses (ratio types) induce greater response rate than do schedules based on elapsed time (interval types). Also, unpredictable schedules (variable types) produce stronger responses than do predictable schedules (fixed types). CREATING COMPLEX BEHAVIORS THROUGH OPERANT CONDITIONING • Shaping – Process of guiding an organism’s behavior to the desired outcome through the use of successive approximations to a final desired behavior • allows the creation of complex behaviors OPERANT CONDITIONING • Key Takeaways – Edward Thorndike developed the law of effect: the principle that responses that create a pleasant outcome in a particular situation are more likely to occur again in a similar situation, whereas responses that produce an unpleasant outcome are less likely to occur again. – B. F. Skinner expanded on Thorndike’s ideas to develop a set of principles to explain operant conditioning. – Positive reinforcement strengthens a response by presenting something pleasant after the response, whereas negative reinforcement strengthens a response by reducing or removing something unpleasant. OPERANT CONDITIONING • Key Takeaways, continued – Positive punishment weakens a response by presenting something unpleasant after the response, whereas negative punishment weakens a response by reducing or removing something pleasant. – Reinforcement may be either partial or continuous. Partial reinforcement schedules are determined by whether the reinforcement is presented on the basis of the time that elapses between reinforcements (interval) or on the basis of the number of responses that the organism engages in (ratio), and by whether the reinforcement occurs on a regular (fixed) or unpredictable (variable) schedule. – Complex behaviors may be created through shaping, the process of guiding an organism’s behavior to the desired outcome through the use of successive approximation to a final desired behavior. LEARNING BY INSIGHT AND OBSERVATION • • Watson and Skinner believed that conditioning processes are sufficient to explain learning. However, conditioning cannot fully explain some types of learning. – insight – the sudden understanding of a problem’s solution – latent learning – learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement – observational learning – learning that occurs by watching others’ behavior LEARNING BY INSIGHT AND OBSERVATION • Insight – The sudden understanding of a problem’s solution – Demonstrated by Kohler among chimpanzees • Chimpanzees given a difficult problem began with trial-and-error attempts. They then stopped and seemed to contemplate the problem for a while. • Following the period of contemplation, the chimps suddenly seemed to know how to solve the problem. LEARNING BY INSIGHT AND OBSERVATION • Latent learning – Learning that is not reinforced and not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so – Tolman demonstrated latent learning in an experiment involving three groups of rats learning to run a maze. • Group 1 – always reinforced; Group 2 – never reinforced; Group 3 – not reinforced for first 10 days, then always reinforced from Day 11 on • When Group 3 began receiving reinforcement, they quickly matched the performance of Group 1. • Group 3 formed a ‘cognitive map’ of the maze even when they were not receiving reinforcement. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING • Observational learning – Learning by watching the behavior of others – Bandura demonstrated observational learning in his “Bobo doll” studies. – Children who viewed an adult behave aggressively toward a large inflatable plastic doll later behaved aggressively toward the doll themselves. THE EFFECTS OF VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES ON AGGRESSION • • By the age of 12, the average American child has seen more than 8000 murders and 100,000 acts of violence on TV. The more media violence children view, the more aggressive they are likely to be. • Playing violent video games also leads to aggression. – One meta-analysis of 35 studies showed that exposure to violent video games is linked to aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior; to physiological arousal; and to less altruistic behavior (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). THE EFFECTS OF VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES ON AGGRESSION • Anderson and Bushman (2002) found that college students who had just played a violent video game listed more aggressive actions, thoughts, and feelings in response to a story than did those who had played a nonviolent video game. LEARNING BY INSIGHT AND OBSERVATION • Key Takeaways – Not all learning can be explained through the principles of classical and operant conditioning. – Insight is the sudden understanding of the components of a problem that makes the solution apparent. – Latent learning refers to learning that is not reinforced and not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so. – Observational learning occurs by viewing the behaviors of others. – Both aggression and altruism can be learned through observation. USING THE PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING TO UNDERSTAND EVERYDAY BEHAVIOR USING THE PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING TO UNDERSTAND EVERYDAY BEHAVIOR • • Learning principles have been applied widely in everyday settings Operant conditioning has been applied to: – motivate employees – improve athletic performance – increase the functioning of the developmentally disabled – help parents toilet-train their children USING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN ADVERTISING • • The general idea is to create an advertisement with positive features, so that the ad creates enjoyment in the viewer. Through conditioning, the advertised product should create the same enjoyment. An ad’s positive features might include humor, a popular athlete or entertainer, and so on. USING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN ADVERTISING • Ads that associate fear with a product or behavior are also effective. – Cigarette warning labels are a related example. USING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN ADVERTISING • The use of classical conditioning in advertising is most successful when: – we know little about the product – the differences between competing products are minor – we do not think carefully about the choices OPERANT CONDITIONING IN THE CLASSROOM • • Watson and Skinner believed that conditioning principles could be used to educate children. Skinner promoted programmed instruction, self-teaching with the aid of a special textbook or teaching machine that presents material in a logical sequence. • “Give me a dozen healthy infants, wellformed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchantchief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.” » Watson (1930) OPERANT CONDITIONING IN THE CLASSROOM • There are limitations to the use of reinforcement in instruction. – Reinforcement should be directly contingent on appropriate behavior. – Indiscriminate reinforcement to boost self-esteem doesn’t improve performance. – Reinforcement may teach children that educational activities should be performed for reward rather than for the intrinsic interest of the task. REINFORCEMENT IN SOCIAL DILEMMAS • • People act to maximize their outcomes, the presence of reinforcers and the absence of punishers. In social dilemmas, the tendency for individuals to maximize their personal outcomes ultimately reduces outcomes for everyone in the group. – For example, individuals enjoy the convenience of driving alone to work each day, rather than taking public transportation. In the end, though, there is more traffic, less fuel, and less clean air for everyone. REINFORCEMENT IN SOCIAL DILEMMAS • • • • The prisoner’s dilemma game allows the laboratory study of social dilemmas. In the game, two suspected criminals are interrogated separately. The matrix indicates the outcomes for each prisoner -- the number of years in prison -- as a result of each combination of cooperative (don’t confess) and competitive (confess) decisions. Outcomes for Malik are in black and outcomes for Frank are in grey. USING THE PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING TO UNDERSTAND EVERYDAY BEHAVIOR • Key Takeaways – Learning theories have been used to change behaviors in many areas of everyday life. – Some advertising uses classical conditioning to associate a pleasant response with a product. – Rewards are frequently and effectively used in education but must be carefully designed to be contingent on performance and to avoid undermining interest in the activity. – Social dilemmas, such as the prisoner’s dilemma, can be understood in terms of a desire to maximize one’s outcomes in a competitive relationship.