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David G. Myers Exploring Psychology Eighth Edition Chapter 7 Learning Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers Definition Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. What behaviors are learned? What behaviors are not learned? 2 How Do We Learn? We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence. 2000 years ago, Aristotle suggested this law of association. Examples: ABC Song, music on a movie, smell of baked goods, sight of belt or wooden spoon 3 Figure 7.1 Classical conditioning Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers Figure 7.2 Operant conditioning Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers Classical Conditioning Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov Sovfoto Behaviorists John Watson. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) 6 Pavlov’s Experiments Before conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus, US - food Unconditioned Response, UR - salivation . Neutral stimulus - does nothing 7 Pavlov’s Experiments During conditioning: Neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning: Neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR) 8 Pavlov’s Experiments Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Unconditioned Response (UR) Neutral Stimulus Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR) Examples: 1, 2, 3 9 We have all been classically conditioned. • Punishment Tools • Food triggers illness • Training coyotes to not eat sheep • Teacher getting attention of class • Language learning • Bells at school • Unconditioned Stimulus (US) • Unconditioned Response (UR) • Neutral Stimulus • Conditioned Stimulus (CS) • Conditioned Response (CR) Terms associated with classical conditioning • Acquisition • Higher Order Conditioning (Secondary Conditioning) – Fear of dogs, fear of barking • Extinction • Spontaneous Recovery • Generalization – sound of a different tone, fear of cars and all moving objects • Discrimination – ability to distinguish 11 Figure 7.5 Idealized curve of acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers Figure 7.6 Child abuse leaves tracks in the brain Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers Applications of Classical Conditioning 1. Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use. 2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response. 14 Applications of Classical Conditioning Brown Brothers Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom. John B. Watson 15 Operant Condition • Make a dog salivate is on thing, what about this…? Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Which is Which? Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events, i.e. punishments and rewards 17 The Law of Effect – Rewarded behavior is likely to recur. • Edward L. Thorndike B.F. Skinner • Shaping – providing reinforces that lead to desired behaviors. Figure 7.10 A Skinner box Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers Reinforcer – any event that strengthens the preceding response. • Positive reinforcement – strengthens a response by presenting a pleasant stimulus after a response. • Negative reinforcement – strengthens a response by removing or reducing something undesirable or unpleasant. Negative reinforcement is not punishment. Table 7.1 Ways to Increase Behavior Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers Figure 7.11 Intermittent reinforcement schedules Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers Table 7.2 Schedules of Reinforcement Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers Punishment – any consequence that decreases the frequency of a preceding behavior. • What is better reinforcement or punishment? Table 7.3 Ways to Decrease Behavior Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers Examples of Operant Conditioning • 1, 2, 3 Table 7.4 Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers More About Learning • • • • Cognitive Maps Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation Biological Predisposition Applications of Operant Condition Learning by Observation © Herb Terrace Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others. What have you learned by watching others? ©Herb Terrace Imitating others is called modeling. 28 Reprinted with permission from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Subiaul et al., Science 305: 407-410 (2004) © 2004 AAAS. Mirror Neurons Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning. 29 Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart. Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants. Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk. Imitation Onset 30 Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments. Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University Bandura's Experiments 31 Applications of Observational Learning Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects. 32 Positive Observational Learning Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects. 33 Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression. Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images Television and Observational Learning 34 Modeling Violence Children modeling after pro wrestlers Glassman/ The Image Works Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression. 35 Figure 7.15 The famous Bobo doll experiment Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers Figure 7.16 Media violence viewing predicts future aggressive behavior Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers