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LEARNING: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS CH. 9 JOURNAL #1 • Recall a situation in which you taught another person a skill or how to do a task. Write a brief account about it. Make sure to include a description of the strategy you used in teaching. JOURNAL # 2 • What did Pavlov’s experiment show about learning. JOURNAL #3 What is a taste aversion? Give an example of a taste aversion you, or someone you know, has. JOURNAL # 4 What is operant conditioning and how does it work? JOURNAL # 5 • Give an example of a fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval schedules. JOURNAL # 6 • What factors can impede someone’s learning? Why? • What factors help people learn? Why? JOURNAL # 7 • What is the difference between learned helplessness and learned laziness. • Give an example of each. JOURNAL • Define and give an examples of factors of learning. SHAPING • Shaping- a technique of operant conditioning in which the desired behavior is “molded” by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring closer and closer approximations to desired behavior before giving the reward. • Think of a training a puppy. To go “outside”, shake, lie down, beg, etc. SHAPING • What have your parents done to “shape” your conduct about coming home on time? Staying up late? Homework? • What have you learned to get around the rules your parents have set? LEARNING • Learning is the key to growth as an individual and as a member of society. • What is learning? • Learning is a lasting change in behavior that results from experience. LEARNING • Think about going to the dentist. Most people are not to happy about going to the dentist because of the pain involved. Let’s look at going to the dentist three different ways: 1) Perhaps you have actually felt pain from your dentist and associated that pain with dentists and thus you dislike going. [classical] LEARNING 2) Perhaps when you mention going to the dentist, your friends or family show you special attention and consideration and from this special attention and consideration you conclude that you ought to be afraid of going to the dentist. [Operant] 3) Perhaps you weren’t afraid of going to the dentist, but you watched the faces of others when you said you were going and concluded you should be afraid. [Modeling] LEARNING • These three ways of looking at going to the dentist, describe three primary ways of learning: • Classical Conditioning- presented independent of behavior by experimenter/ a new behavior is created • Operant Conditioning- the subject must decide to engage in the behavior in order for the programmed outcome to occur What’s the difference? In classical conditioning a stimulus that already leads to a response is replaced by a different stimulus (tuning fork replaces the food powder) In operant conditioning a behavior is picked out and either reinforced or punished to make it more or less common (increase listening by students- say positive comments about how good they listen). • Modeling- see behavior and you copy it CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • Defined: A learning procedure in which a stimulus that normally elicits a given response is repeatedly proceeded by a neutral stimulus (one that usually does not elicit the response). Eventually, the neutral stimulus will evoke a similar response when presented by itself. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • Example- A guy and girl are on a date. They fall in love. She is wearing perfume that smells like lilacs. He is wearing Polo Sport. They go steady for six months, then have to go on separate vacations. She goes to Miami. He goes to Michigan. She goes to the mall. He goes on a hike. She passes a guy wearing Polo Sport, He passes a lilac bush. They immediately think of each other. That is classical conditioning. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Pavlov’s Experiment Why should we study it? Intelligent people know Pavlov and his experiments in 1927. It is often used as an allusion in intelligent conversations. “So and so is like Pavlov’s dog. He’ll do anything his wife tells him to do.” CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 1)In Pavlov’s experiment, Pavlov took dog food (or meat powder) and placed it in front of a dog. 2) Not surprisingly, the dog began to salivate. Because Pavlov did not have to do anything to cause the dog to salivate, the food is referred to as an unconditioned stimulus and the salivation is the unconditioned response. They were going to happen again. – They were going to happen anyway- CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 3) Now Pavlov began to sound a tuning fork just before he gave the dog food. He repeated this several times. 4) Not surprisingly, the dog continued to salivate when the food and tuning fork ringing were present. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 5) Then Pavlov removed the food, but continued sounding the tuning fork. He repeated this several times. What happened? CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Results- The dog continued to salivate when the tuning fork was sounded, even though there was no food present. The tuning fork was a conditioned stimulus and the salivation became a conditioned response. They are called “conditioned” because they would not normally be expected to occur. A tuning fork does not normally cause a dog to salivate, but in this case it did. The dog was conditioned to salivate to the tuning fork. ANALYSIS OF PAVLOV’S STUDY CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (CC) EXPERIMENT • Name the following for Pavlov first and then do experiment (copy below and don’t lose) • NS (Neutral Stimulus) • UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus) ---- UCR (Unconditioned Response) CC at work • NS ----UCS---------UCR • Repeat above line several times and you get the outcome below • CS (Conditioned Stimulus)--------------------CR (Conditioned Response) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (CC) EXPERIMENT ANSWERS • Name the following • NS (Neutral Stimulus) “Can” • UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus) ---- UCR (Unconditioned Response) Air Blinking CC at work • NS--------UCS----------UCS “Can” Air Blinking • Repeat above line several times and you get the outcome below • CS (Conditioned Stimulus)-------------------CR (Conditioned Response “Can” Blinking CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Think about it in terms of people. A baby starts to walk toward a hot stove. She says stop, but the baby continues toward the stove. The mother runs to the baby, yells “no” and smacks the baby on the behind. The baby cries, then keeps walking toward the stove. The mother again runs to the baby, yells “no” and smacks the baby on the behind. The baby cries. Then walks toward the stove. The mother yells “no” and the baby starts to cry. That is classical conditioning. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING In classical conditioning the best results are obtained when the conditioned stimulus is presented just before the unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov also used his experiments on dogs to explore the phenomena of generalizations- the broadening of a response- and discrimination. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • Pavlov got his dogs to salivate whenever they saw circles. He then got the same dogs to salivate when they saw ovals too. The dogs salivated when they saw either circles or ovals. They generalized what they saw. • But then Pavlov changed things. He started rewarding the dogs with food only when a circle was present and never when an oval was presented. What happened? CLASSICAL CONDITIONING The dogs learned to salivate only when the circles were present. They learned the difference between circles and ovals. They learned to discriminate between the two. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Think about peopleA child saying daddy to only their father is discrimination. You had a bad experience with a teacher- you think all teachers stink= generalization. You had a bad experience with a teacher- you think that specific teacher stinks- discrimination. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Pavlov discovered that, if he failed to ring the tuning fork, and presented the food to the dogs, after a while they would forget about tuning forks so that when he rang one again, the dog would not respond to it. The process of forgetting a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus is called extinction. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Class activity Little Albert- page 249. What do you think of this case? Was it ethical? CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR Dr. Mower and his wife Betty created a bed-wetting device in 1938 to help bed –wetters get over their bed-wetting problem. R. Mower introduced a bell which was activated by the presence of “moisture” which eventually sensitizes the child to the previously undetected feeling of a full bladder. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR • This teaches the kid to wake up when he senses a full bladder, this avoiding the problem of wet beds. • Problem- training kids to wake up may be better than a wet bed, but the objective is to learn to retain ones bladder contents until the morning. TASTE AVERSIONS • Restaurant Eat Get sick Hate food OPERANT CONDITIONING Definition- A form of learning win which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in the likelihood that similar actions will occur. Or Operant conditioning is learning from the consequences of behavior. OPERANT CONDITIONING Examples: 1A dog roams a neighborhood a kind neighbor gives the dog a bone Dog returns Another bone The dog learns – through operant conditioning- to come back. OPERANT CONDITIONING 2A younger brother is ignored by his mother Younger brother picks a fight Mother disciplines younger brother Younger brother picks another fight Again the mother discipline the younger brother younger brother learns that he gets attention when he picks a fight. OPERANT CONDITIONING Reinforcement Defined: Immediately following a particular response with a reward in order to strengthen the response. Ex- Give a dog a cookie when it learns to shake hands. Social approval, money, extra privileges. O.C.- REINFORCEMENT Schedules of Reinforcement You would think that rewarding behavior after every occurrence would be the most successful. However, according to B. F. Skinner, such is not the case. He accidentally discovered this when his reward machinery (which delivered food to rats) kept breaking down. Skinner discovered that even though the rats were not rewarded after every occurrence, they kept performing and performed longer than the rats who had been rewarded after every occurrence. O.C.- REINFORCEMENT Fixed ratio schedule: Every fourth play, piecework in a factory, etc. reward Variable ratio schedule: Slot machine. You never know when reward Fixed interval schedule: First play after a set time period reward Variable interval schedule: First play after a variable time period reward O.C.- REINFORCEMENT Because of the complexity of human interaction, most rewards in the real world will be variable. Responses are learned better when reinforced on variable interval schedules. OPERANT CONDITIONING Stimulus Control Primary Reinforcer- Stimuli which are innately (naturally) rewarding, such as food, or water. Secondary Reinforcer- Stimuli which are rewarding through their association with a primary reinforcer. When signals are reinforced in and of themselves, they are called secondary reinforcers (or conditional reinforcer). Exsmiles, money, free time. O.C.- STIMULUS CONTROL • Wolfe (in 1936) taught chimps to use poker chips (secondary reinforcers) to obtain bananas and peanuts (primary reinforcers). The chimps pulled heavy levers to work to get the chips, then used them to “but food” from food dispensers. Chimps learned to save the chips and try to steal them from one another. O.C.- STIMULUS CONTROL For a baby, a smile is a secondary reinforcer for being cuddled, held, and fed (primary reinforcers). OPERANT CONDITIONINGAVERSIVE CONTROL Aversive Control Reinforcement is usually though of in terms of pleasant consequences of behavior, but psychologists use “reinforcement” to refer to anything that increases behavior. When that anything is negative, it is referred to as aversive control. O.C.- AVERSIVE CONTROL Negative Reinforcement- Increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs. The removal of unpleasant consequences increase the frequency of a behavior that preceded the removal. O.C.- AVERSIVE CONTROL Suppose you had on woolen underwear. It would itch and feel pretty bad. Suppose you cried and pleaded for relief and your parents gave you some nice, soft cotton underwear. You would have the experienced negative reinforcement. In response to your crying and pleading, your parents removed the negative stimulus. You have learned to cry and plead for what you want. O.C.- AVERSIVE CONTROL Two types of negative reinforcement: escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning. Escape conditioning: The training of an organism to remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus. Ex- Whine to have something unpleasant removed from your life. O.C.- AVERSIVE CONTROL Avoidance conditioning: The training of an organism to remove or withdraw from an unpleasant stimulus before it starts. Ex- Whine to prevent the introduction of something unpleasant. FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING Feedback: Information received after an action as to its effectiveness or correctness. Examples- When you get a test back, you are getting feedback about how you are doing. When your boyfriend or girlfriend goes out with someone else, you are getting feedback about how well your relationship is going. FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING Feedback can tell you how well you are doing– and encourage you to continue– and it can tell you how much you need to improve. FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING Transfer: The effects of past learning on the ability to learn new tasks. Transfer can be positive or negative. When there is positive transfer, prior learning helps you learn a new skill. Ex- Learning to ride a bicycle would help you learn to ride a motorcycle. Learning to types helps you learn to use a computer. FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING When there is negative transfer, prior learning interferes with learning a new skill. Learning to print everything you write might interfere with your willingness to learn cursive writing. Speaking English might interfere with your ability to learn the sounds required to learn French or Chinese because your English “tones” interfere with you ability to learn the tones associated with those languages. FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING Practice: The repetition of a task. It is best to practice over a period of time, than to practice all at once. FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING Athletes use “mental practice” or” visioning”. Our book doesn’t give it much credit but I think they are selling it short. Mental practice, focusing, and visioning might make the difference between an ok athlete and a great one. LEARNING COMPLICATED SKILLS • Learning is more than simple stimulus- response reaction. It is complicated. Shaping: A technique of operant conditioning in which the desired behavior is “molded” by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward. LEARNING COMPLICATED SKILLS • Combining the shaped responses Chaining. • Responses that are put together, one after the other, are said to be “chained”. • Chains of responses are put together into response patterns. MODELING Modeling: We learn by observing and imitating others. Three effects: 1- We do the same thing others do, without learning a new skill. 2- We observe others and learn a new skill. 3- We overcome our inhibitions by observing others do what we fear, but without consequences MODELING • Some psychologists believe that we have some sort of “instinct” for imitation, because we use it frequently. Isn’t that how we learn to speak? • Spatial learning- sidebar on pg. 43 MODELING • We learn in terms not only of time, but also in terms of space. • Exploring your neighborhood as a child led to exploring your town. • Coming to a new school was confusing until you found your way around. • Cats have regular “routes” they follow at night. All these are examples of spatial learning. USING PSYCHOLOGY- BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION Behavior Modification: Changing someone’s behavior. Ex- give your brother a quarter to “go away”. Computer-Aided instruction: Students receive immediate positive or negative reinforcement after each unity of study. USING PSYCHOLOGY- BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION Token Economies: Getting points that can be cashed in for candy or other goods. Self-Control: Do you have any habits you would like to control? Smoking, drinking, cracking your knuckles.