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LEARNING: PRINCIPLES
AND APPLICATIONS
CH. 9
JOURNAL #1
• Recall a situation in which you taught another
person a skill or how to do a task. Write a brief
account about it. Make sure to include a
description of the strategy you used in teaching.
JOURNAL # 2
• What did Pavlov’s experiment show about learning.
JOURNAL #3
What is a taste aversion?
Give an example of a taste aversion you, or someone
you know, has.
JOURNAL # 4
What is operant conditioning and how does it work?
JOURNAL # 5
• Give an example of a fixed ratio, variable ratio,
fixed interval, and variable interval schedules.
JOURNAL # 6
• What factors can impede someone’s learning?
Why?
• What factors help people learn? Why?
JOURNAL # 7
• What is the difference between learned
helplessness and learned laziness.
• Give an example of each.
JOURNAL
• Define and give an examples of factors of learning.
SHAPING
• Shaping- a technique of operant conditioning in
which the desired behavior is “molded” by first
rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then
requiring closer and closer approximations to
desired behavior before giving the reward.
• Think of a training a puppy. To go “outside”, shake,
lie down, beg, etc.
SHAPING
• What have your parents done to “shape” your
conduct about coming home on time? Staying up
late? Homework?
• What have you learned to get around the rules your
parents have set?
LEARNING
• Learning is the key to growth as an individual and as
a member of society.
• What is learning?
• Learning is a lasting change in behavior that results from
experience.
LEARNING
• Think about going to the dentist. Most people are
not to happy about going to the dentist because of
the pain involved. Let’s look at going to the dentist
three different ways:
1) Perhaps you have actually felt pain from your
dentist and associated that pain with dentists and
thus you dislike going. [classical]
LEARNING
2) Perhaps when you mention going to the
dentist, your friends or family show you
special attention and consideration and
from this special attention and consideration
you conclude that you ought to be afraid of
going to the dentist. [Operant]
3) Perhaps you weren’t afraid of going to the
dentist, but you watched the faces of others
when you said you were going and
concluded you should be afraid. [Modeling]
LEARNING
• These three ways of looking at going to the dentist,
describe three primary ways of learning:
• Classical Conditioning- presented independent of behavior
by experimenter/ a new behavior is created
• Operant Conditioning- the subject must decide to engage
in the behavior in order for the programmed outcome to
occur
What’s the difference?
In classical conditioning a stimulus that already leads to a
response is replaced by a different stimulus (tuning fork
replaces the food powder) In operant conditioning a
behavior is picked out and either reinforced or punished to
make it more or less common (increase listening by
students- say positive comments about how good they
listen).
• Modeling- see behavior and you copy it
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Defined: A learning procedure in which a stimulus
that normally elicits a given response is repeatedly
proceeded by a neutral stimulus (one that usually
does not elicit the response). Eventually, the neutral
stimulus will evoke a similar response when
presented by itself.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Example- A guy and girl are on a date. They
fall in love. She is wearing perfume that
smells like lilacs. He is wearing Polo Sport.
They go steady for six months, then have to
go on separate vacations. She goes to
Miami. He goes to Michigan. She goes to
the mall. He goes on a hike. She passes a
guy wearing Polo Sport, He passes a lilac
bush. They immediately think of each other.
That is classical conditioning.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Pavlov’s Experiment
Why should we study it?
Intelligent people know Pavlov and his experiments
in 1927. It is often used as an allusion in intelligent
conversations.
“So and so is like Pavlov’s dog. He’ll do anything his
wife tells him to do.”
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
1)In Pavlov’s experiment, Pavlov took dog food
(or meat powder) and placed it in front of a
dog.
2) Not surprisingly, the dog began to salivate.
Because Pavlov did not have to do anything to
cause the dog to salivate, the food is referred
to as an unconditioned stimulus and the
salivation is the unconditioned response. They
were going to happen again. – They were
going to happen anyway-
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
3) Now Pavlov began to sound a tuning fork just
before he gave the dog food. He repeated this
several times.
4) Not surprisingly, the dog continued to salivate
when the food and tuning fork ringing were present.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
5) Then Pavlov removed the food, but continued
sounding the tuning fork. He repeated this several
times.
What happened?
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Results- The dog continued to salivate when
the tuning fork was sounded, even though
there was no food present.
The tuning fork was a conditioned stimulus
and the salivation became a conditioned
response.
They are called “conditioned” because they
would not normally be expected to occur.
A tuning fork does not normally cause a dog
to salivate, but in this case it did.
The dog was conditioned to salivate to the
tuning fork.
ANALYSIS OF PAVLOV’S STUDY
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (CC)
EXPERIMENT
• Name the following for Pavlov first and then do
experiment (copy below and don’t lose)
• NS (Neutral Stimulus)
• UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus) ---- UCR (Unconditioned Response)
CC at work
• NS ----UCS---------UCR
• Repeat above line several times and you get the outcome below
• CS (Conditioned Stimulus)--------------------CR (Conditioned
Response)
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (CC)
EXPERIMENT ANSWERS
• Name the following
• NS (Neutral Stimulus) “Can”
• UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus) ---- UCR (Unconditioned Response)
Air
Blinking
CC at work
• NS--------UCS----------UCS
“Can”
Air
Blinking
• Repeat above line several times and you get the outcome below
• CS (Conditioned Stimulus)-------------------CR (Conditioned Response
“Can”
Blinking
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Think about it in terms of people. A baby
starts to walk toward a hot stove. She says
stop, but the baby continues toward the
stove. The mother runs to the baby, yells
“no” and smacks the baby on the behind.
The baby cries, then keeps walking toward
the stove. The mother again runs to the
baby, yells “no” and smacks the baby on
the behind. The baby cries. Then walks
toward the stove. The mother yells “no” and
the baby starts to cry.
That is classical conditioning.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
In classical conditioning the best results are obtained
when the conditioned stimulus is presented just
before the unconditioned stimulus.
Pavlov also used his experiments on dogs to explore
the phenomena of generalizations- the broadening
of a response- and discrimination.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Pavlov got his dogs to salivate whenever
they saw circles. He then got the same dogs
to salivate when they saw ovals too. The
dogs salivated when they saw either circles
or ovals. They generalized what they saw.
• But then Pavlov changed things. He started
rewarding the dogs with food only when a
circle was present and never when an oval
was presented.
What happened?
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
The dogs learned to salivate only when the circles
were present.
They learned the difference between circles and
ovals. They learned to discriminate between the
two.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Think about peopleA child saying daddy to only their father is
discrimination.
You had a bad experience with a teacher- you think
all teachers stink= generalization.
You had a bad experience with a teacher- you think
that specific teacher stinks- discrimination.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Pavlov discovered that, if he failed to ring the tuning
fork, and presented the food to the dogs, after a
while they would forget about tuning forks so that
when he rang one again, the dog would not
respond to it.
The process of forgetting a conditioned response to a
conditioned stimulus is called extinction.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Class activity
Little Albert- page 249.
What do you think of this case?
Was it ethical?
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND
HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Dr. Mower and his wife Betty created a bed-wetting
device in 1938 to help bed –wetters get over their
bed-wetting problem. R. Mower introduced a bell
which was activated by the presence of “moisture”
which eventually sensitizes the child to the
previously undetected feeling of a full bladder.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND
HUMAN BEHAVIOR
• This teaches the kid to wake up when he senses a
full bladder, this avoiding the problem of wet beds.
• Problem- training kids to wake up may be better
than a wet bed, but the objective is to learn to
retain ones bladder contents until the morning.
TASTE AVERSIONS
• Restaurant Eat  Get sick  Hate food
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Definition- A form of learning win which a certain
action is reinforced or punished, resulting in
corresponding increases or decreases in the
likelihood that similar actions will occur.
Or
Operant conditioning is learning from the
consequences of behavior.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Examples:
1A dog roams a neighborhood  a kind neighbor
gives the dog a bone  Dog returns  Another
bone  The dog learns – through operant
conditioning- to come back.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
2A younger brother is ignored by his mother 
Younger brother picks a fight  Mother disciplines
younger brother  Younger brother picks another
fight  Again the mother discipline the younger
brother  younger brother learns that he gets
attention when he picks a fight.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Reinforcement
Defined: Immediately following a particular
response with a reward in order to strengthen the
response.
Ex- Give a dog a cookie when it learns to shake
hands.
Social approval, money, extra privileges.
O.C.- REINFORCEMENT
Schedules of Reinforcement
You would think that rewarding behavior after every
occurrence would be the most successful.
However, according to B. F. Skinner, such is not the case.
He accidentally discovered this when his reward
machinery (which delivered food to rats) kept breaking
down. Skinner discovered that even though the rats
were not rewarded after every occurrence, they kept
performing and performed longer than the rats who had
been rewarded after every occurrence.
O.C.- REINFORCEMENT
Fixed ratio schedule: Every fourth play, piecework in a
factory, etc.  reward
Variable ratio schedule: Slot machine. You never
know when  reward
Fixed interval schedule: First play after a set time
period  reward
Variable interval schedule: First play after a variable
time period reward
O.C.- REINFORCEMENT
Because of the complexity of human interaction,
most rewards in the real world will be variable.
Responses are learned better when reinforced on
variable interval schedules.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Stimulus Control
Primary Reinforcer- Stimuli which are innately
(naturally) rewarding, such as food, or
water.
Secondary Reinforcer- Stimuli which are
rewarding through their association with a
primary reinforcer.
When signals are reinforced in and of
themselves, they are called secondary
reinforcers (or conditional reinforcer). Exsmiles, money, free time.
O.C.- STIMULUS CONTROL
• Wolfe (in 1936) taught chimps to use poker chips
(secondary reinforcers) to obtain bananas and
peanuts (primary reinforcers). The chimps pulled
heavy levers to work to get the chips, then used
them to “but food” from food dispensers. Chimps
learned to save the chips and try to steal them from
one another.
O.C.- STIMULUS CONTROL
For a baby, a smile is a secondary reinforcer for being
cuddled, held, and fed (primary reinforcers).
OPERANT CONDITIONINGAVERSIVE CONTROL
Aversive Control
Reinforcement is usually though of in terms of
pleasant consequences of behavior, but
psychologists use “reinforcement” to refer to
anything that increases behavior. When that
anything is negative, it is referred to as aversive
control.
O.C.- AVERSIVE CONTROL
Negative Reinforcement- Increasing the strength of a
given response by removing or preventing a painful
stimulus when the response occurs.
The removal of unpleasant consequences increase
the frequency of a behavior that preceded the
removal.
O.C.- AVERSIVE CONTROL
Suppose you had on woolen underwear. It would
itch and feel pretty bad. Suppose you cried and
pleaded for relief and your parents gave you some
nice, soft cotton underwear. You would have the
experienced negative reinforcement. In response to
your crying and pleading, your parents removed
the negative stimulus. You have learned to cry and
plead for what you want.
O.C.- AVERSIVE CONTROL
Two types of negative reinforcement: escape
conditioning and avoidance conditioning.
Escape conditioning: The training of an organism to
remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus.
Ex- Whine to have something unpleasant removed
from your life.
O.C.- AVERSIVE CONTROL
Avoidance conditioning: The training of an organism
to remove or withdraw from an unpleasant stimulus
before it starts.
Ex- Whine to prevent the introduction of something
unpleasant.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING
Feedback: Information received after an action as to
its effectiveness or correctness.
Examples-
When you get a test back, you are getting
feedback about how you are doing.
When your boyfriend or girlfriend goes out
with someone else, you are getting
feedback about how well your relationship is
going.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING
Feedback can tell you how well you are doing– and
encourage you to continue– and it can tell you
how much you need to improve.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING
Transfer: The effects of past learning on the ability to
learn new tasks.
Transfer can be positive or negative.
When there is positive transfer, prior learning helps
you learn a new skill.
Ex- Learning to ride a bicycle would help you learn to
ride a motorcycle. Learning to types helps you
learn to use a computer.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING
When there is negative transfer, prior learning
interferes with learning a new skill.
Learning to print everything you write might
interfere with your willingness to learn cursive
writing. Speaking English might interfere with
your ability to learn the sounds required to
learn French or Chinese because your
English “tones” interfere with you ability to
learn the tones associated with those
languages.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING
Practice: The repetition of a task.
It is best to practice over a period of time, than to
practice all at once.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING
Athletes use “mental practice” or” visioning”. Our
book doesn’t give it much credit but I think they are
selling it short. Mental practice, focusing, and
visioning might make the difference between an ok
athlete and a great one.
LEARNING COMPLICATED SKILLS
• Learning is more than simple stimulus- response
reaction. It is complicated.
Shaping: A technique of operant conditioning in
which the desired behavior is “molded” by first
rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then
requiring closer and closer approximations to the
desired behavior before giving the reward.
LEARNING COMPLICATED SKILLS
• Combining the shaped responses Chaining.
• Responses that are put together, one after the
other, are said to be “chained”.
• Chains of responses are put together into response
patterns.
MODELING
Modeling: We learn by observing and
imitating others.
Three effects:
1- We do the same thing others do, without
learning a new skill.
2- We observe others and learn a new skill.
3- We overcome our inhibitions by observing
others do what we fear, but without
consequences
MODELING
• Some psychologists believe that we have some sort
of “instinct” for imitation, because we use it
frequently. Isn’t that how we learn to speak?
• Spatial learning- sidebar on pg. 43
MODELING
• We learn in terms not only of time, but also in terms
of space.
• Exploring your neighborhood as a child led to exploring your
town.
• Coming to a new school was confusing until you found your
way around.
• Cats have regular “routes” they follow at night.
All these are examples of spatial learning.
USING PSYCHOLOGY- BEHAVIOR
MODIFICATION
Behavior Modification: Changing someone’s
behavior. Ex- give your brother a quarter to “go
away”.
Computer-Aided instruction: Students receive
immediate positive or negative reinforcement after
each unity of study.
USING PSYCHOLOGY- BEHAVIOR
MODIFICATION
Token Economies: Getting points that can be cashed
in for candy or other goods.
Self-Control: Do you have any habits you would like
to control? Smoking, drinking, cracking your
knuckles.