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Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Chapter 6 Learning Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Learning Learning is defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior that is based upon experience. It is an area of psychology that seems simple to evaluate but is in fact quite complex. Factors both within and outside of an organism can influence and interfere with learning. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Module 6.1 Behaviorism Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism Behaviorists are psychologists who insist that psychologists should study only observable, measurable behaviors, not mental processes. There is however a wide range of views among researchers who call themselves behaviorists. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism Methodological behaviorism Methodological behaviorists study only events that they can measure and observe. They sometimes use those observations to make inferences about internal events. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism Methodological behaviorism For example, from observing how an animal behaves in the presence of certain stimuli, a methodological behaviorist will infer the presence of an intervening variable. An intervening variable is something that cannot be directly observed yet links a variety of procedures to a variety of possible responses. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism Methodological behaviorism If a monkey is more likely to show its teeth or make loud noises in response to the placement of a stuffed animal or a larger monkey of the same species in its cage, and to a recording of growling noises of a predatory cat, the methodological behaviorist will infer the presence of the intervening variable fear. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism Methodological behaviorism What measurements would you take to infer the presence of intervening variables such as: Hunger Affection Anger Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism Radical behaviorism Radical behaviorists believe that internal states are caused by events in the environment, or by genetics. The ultimate cause of behavior is therefore the observable events, not the internal states. Most discussions of mental states are sloppy and should be rephrased into a description of behavior. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism The rise of behaviorism In the early 1900’s, the structuralists used introspection as a technique to study psychology. They asked subjects to describe their own experiences in order to study thoughts and ideas. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism The rise of behaviorism Behaviorists believed that it was useless to ask people to describe their private experiences. There was no way to check the accuracy of these reports, and hard to define what “private experiences” mean. Behaviorists insisted that psychology deal with observable and measurable events only. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism The rise of behaviorism Jacques Loeb argued that all animal behavior, and most human behavior, could be explained with stimulusresponse psychology. Stimulus-response psychology attempts to explain behavior in terms of how each stimulus triggers a response. Flinching away from a blow and shading one’s eyes from a strong light would be examples of stimulusresponse behaviors. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism The rise of behaviorism More complex patterns of behavior are just the result of adding together many changes of speed and direction elicited by various stimuli. Modern behaviorists do not subscribe to this model but now believe that behavior is the product of a history of stimuli and responses, plus the effects of natural physiological states (hunger, tiredness, etc.) Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism The rise of behaviorism The behaviorists carried on the tradition of asking questions about animal learning. This tradition was abandoned when it was found to be impossible to answer questions about how intelligent different animal species are. Early behaviorists believed that it might be possible to determine the basic laws of learning by studying how animals learn. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism The assumptions of behaviorism Behaviorists are deterministic They assume that we live in a universe of identifiable cause-and-effect. Since our behavior is part of that universe, it too must have identifiable causes. If we know enough about the individual’s past experiences, current influences, and genetics, we can predict that individual’s behavior. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism The assumptions of behaviorism Behaviorists believe that mental explanations are ineffective. Q. Why is she smiling? A. She is smiling because she is happy. Q How do you know she is happy? A. We can tell she is happy because she is smiling. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism The assumptions of behaviorism Behaviorists believe that this sort of exchange is typical of the circular reasoning that can arise when one attempts to infer the presence of internal states based on behavior. The influence of this perspective can be seen in the American legal system, where witnesses are not allowed to draw inferences about what they saw, but rather are encouraged only to describe appearance and behavior. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism The assumptions of behaviorism Behaviorists believe that the environment plays a powerful role in molding behavior. The most powerful influence on behavior is outcome. Our environment selects and perpetuates successful behaviors, much as evolution selects successful animals. Behaviorists do not deny the importance of heredity, but they do not emphasize it. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Behaviorism People are often quick to dismiss behaviorism, because they are disturbed by the notion that thoughts, beliefs and emotions are not the cause of behavior. A behaviorist would argue that past outcomes of behaviors have caused the thoughts, beliefs and emotions. How could you scientifically support the idea that thoughts, beliefs and emotions exist independently of your previous experiences? Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Module 6.2 Classical Conditioning Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Pavlov and Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov was a physiologist who won a Nobel Prize for his research on digestion. His original description of classical conditioning was a byproduct of this research. He did not set out to discover classical conditioning. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning Pavlov noticed that the dogs he used to do his research salivated upon the sight of the lab workers who fed them. He concluded that this reflex was “psychological” because it was based on the dog’s previous experiences. Further testing demonstrated that the sight of food produced the same effect as giving the same amount of food to the dog. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Figure 6.2 Pavlov used dogs for his experiments on classical conditioning and salivation. The experimenter can ring a buzzer (CS), present food (UCS), and measure the responses (CR and UCR). Pavlov himself collected saliva with a simple measuring pouch attached to the dog’s cheek; his later colleagues used a more complex device. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning Based upon his tentative acceptance of the salivation as a reflex, Pavlov used the term conditional reflex to describe this response. The term was mistranslated into English as conditioned reflex, a mistake that helped create the terminology we use to describe classical conditioning. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning Pavlov started with the unconditioned reflex of salivation to food. He hypothesized that that this was an automatic connection. The dogs had an unconditioned reflex between food and secretion of digestive juices. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning A buzzer is called a neutral stimulus because it elicits attention to the sound, but no automatic connection. The dogs would lift their ears and look around when the buzzer sounded, but no salivation was produced. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning Pavlov conjectured that animals develop new connections by transferring a response from one stimulus to another. He hypothesized that if a buzzer always preceded the food, the buzzer would begin to elicit the reflex of salivation. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning After a few pairings of the buzzer with the food, the dogs would begin to salivate as soon as the buzzer sounded. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Figure 6.3a With classical conditioning a conditioned stimulus is followed by an unconditioned stimulus. At first the conditioned stimulus elicits no response, and the unconditioned stimulus elicits the unconditioned response. After sufficient pairings the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response, which can resemble the unconditioned response. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Figure 6.3b With classical conditioning a conditioned stimulus is followed by an unconditioned stimulus. At first the conditioned stimulus elicits no response, and the unconditioned stimulus elicits the unconditioned response. After sufficient pairings the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response, which can resemble the unconditioned response. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Figure 6.3c With classical conditioning a conditioned stimulus is followed by an unconditioned stimulus. At first the conditioned stimulus elicits no response, and the unconditioned stimulus elicits the unconditioned response. After sufficient pairings the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response, which can resemble the unconditioned response. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning Terminology Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) An event that consistently and automatically elicits an unconditioned response. Unconditioned Response (UCR) An action that the unconditioned stimulus automatically elicits. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning Terminology Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Formerly the neutral stimulus, having been paired with the unconditioned stimulus, elicits the same response. That response depends upon its consistent pairing with the UCR. Conditioned Response (CR) The response elicited by the conditioned stimulus due to the training. Usually it closely resembles the UCR. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning Factors that enhance conditioning Conditioning occurs more rapidly when the conditioned (neutral) stimulus is relatively unfamiliar. If you are already habituated to (used to) the neutral stimulus, it will take longer for its pairing with an unconditioned stimulus to form a connection for you. Conditioning is facilitated when people are already aware of the connection between the CS and the UCS. When people are informed of the conditioning procedure prior to its beginning, they will be conditioned faster. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check A puff of air is blown into a rabbit’s eye just after a musical tone is played. After several repetitions of this procedure, the rabbit closes its eye when the musical tone is played. What are the: UCS UCR Neutral Stimulus/CS And CR? Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check Answers: UCS – Air puff UCR – Closing eye Neutral stimulus/CS – Musical tone CR – Closing eye Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check The television commercial for Mega Burger shows a big delicious cheeseburger. A 50’s rock-and-roll song is played during the commercial. You see the commercial several times, and now when the song is playing on the radio, you get hungry. What are the: UCS UCR Neutral Stimulus/CS And CR? Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check Answers: UCS - Cheeseburger UCR - Hunger Neutral Stimulus/CS – Rock and Roll song CR - Hunger Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check When the training starts, the CS elicits ________ and the UCS elicits ________. No response The UCR Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check After the training, the CS elicits ________ and the UCS elicits ________. The CR The UCR Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning The processes of classical conditioning The process that establishes or strengthens a conditioned response is called acquisition. To extinguish a classically conditioned response, the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. This decrease and elimination is referred to as extinction. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning The processes of classical conditioning A rabbit is conditioned to blink its eye through repeated presentation of a musical tone followed by a puff of air directly blown in its eye. After a few repetitions, the rabbit blinks its eye when the tone sounds. This is the acquisition. The musical tone is then played repeatedly with no puff of air. Gradually, the rabbit stops blinking its eye. This is the extinction. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning The processes of classical conditioning Extinction does not erase the association between the CS and the UCS. If the puff of air is suddenly presented again to the rabbit without warning, it will blink its eye the next time the tone is played. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning The processes of classical conditioning The temporary return of an extinguished response is called spontaneous recovery. The rabbit acquires the response, and then the response is extinguished through the repeated presentation of the tone with no air puff. Many hours after the experiment, the rabbit hears a musical tone. It blinks its eye. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Figure 6.4 Phases of classical conditioning: Classical conditioning proceeds through several phases, depending on the time of presentation of the two stimuli. If the conditioned stimulus regularly precedes the unconditioned stimulus, acquisition occurs. If the conditioned stimulus is presented by itself, extinction occurs. A pause after extinction yields a brief spontaneous recovery. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Figure 6.5 The procedure for classical conditioning of the eye-blink response. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check To deal with your conditioned response to the song from the Mega Burger commercial, what steps would you take to produce extinction? What steps would you take to produce spontaneous recovery? To produce extinction, play the song repeatedly with no image of the cheeseburger. To produce spontaneous recovery, watch the commercial once a few days after the extinction procedure has been completed. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning The processes of classical conditioning Stimulus generalization is the extension of a conditioned response from the training stimulus to similar stimuli. Through conditioning Baby Hannah smiles and laughs at the title screen with dark background and white writing that precedes a funny song and cartoon on her “Merrytubbies” video tape. Her parents notice that she also smiles and giggles at the FBI Warning screen appearing on movie videotapes. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Figure 6.6 Stimulus generalization is the process of extending a learned response to new stimuli that resemble the one used in training. As a rule a stimulus similar to the training stimulus elicits a strong response; a less similar stimulus elicits a weaker response. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning The process of classical conditioning Discrimination is the process of learning to respond differently to two stimuli because they produce two different outcomes. Gradually Hannah stops laughing at the FBI Warning screen because the song and cartoon do not follow it. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning Explanations of classical conditioning The process of classical conditioning is more complex than it seems at first glance. The association is not merely a transfer of response from one stimulus to the other. The conditioned stimulus appears to act as a signal to the organism. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning Explanations of classical conditioning Temporal contiguity facilitates the process of conditioning. The less time that elapses between the presentation of the CS and the UCS, the faster the CR is acquired. The CR will be acquired more quickly when the CS precedes the UCS. This is called forward conditioning. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Figure 6.8 Pavlov believed that conditioning depended on temporal contiguity: (a) At the start of conditioning, activity in the UCS center automatically causes activation of the UCR center. At this time activity of the CS center does not affect the UCS center. (b) After sufficient pairings of the CS and UCS, their simultaneous activity causes the growth of a connection between the CS and UCS centers. Afterward, activity in the CS center will flow to the UCS center and therefore excite the UCR center. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning Explanations of classical conditioning In trace conditioning, the CS stops well before the UCS is presented. This is a slow and relatively ineffective way to condition a response. Backward conditioning (UCS follows by the CS) rarely produces any response. The discovery of blocking effects suggests that it is difficult to condition the same response in an animal to more than one stimulus. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning Explanations of classical conditioning When rats experience an electric shock (a UCS) they jump and shriek. After being conditioned to a buzzer preceding the shock (a CS) they freeze in place at the sound of the buzzer. This is known to be a typical rat response to imminent danger. These findings suggest that an animal uses a CS as a way to prepare for a UCS. The animal is not treating the CS as the actual UCS. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning Conditioning, contiguity and contingency A conditioned response develops only if there is predictability or contingency. The UCS is more likely after the CS than without it. The learner discovers the event that predicts the outcome. However, it is unclear whether or not any actual complex thinking is occurring as a result of this process. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is thought by those unfamiliar with psychology to be the learning of simple, mechanical behavior. In reality it is a complex form of learning that requires some processing of information on the part of the learner. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Module 6.3 Operant Conditioning Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Thorndike and Operant Conditioning In 1911, Harvard graduate student Edward Thorndike developed a simple, behaviorist explanation of learning. He used a learning curve, a graph of the changes in behavior that occur over successive trials of a learning experiment, to record how quickly cats learned to escape from a puzzle box (a type of maze.) Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Figure 6.11 Each of Thorndike’s puzzle boxes had a device that could open it. Here tilting the pole will open the door. (Based on Thorndike, 1911/1970) Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Figure 6.12 Trial and error or insight? As the data from one of Thorndike’s experiments show, the time that a cat needs to escape from a puzzle box gradually grows shorter, but in an irregular manner. Thorndike concluded that the cat did not at any point “suddenly get the idea.” Instead, reinforcement gradually increased the probability of the successful behavior. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Thorndike and Operant Conditioning The curve of learning for the cats indicated a slow, gradual and consistent progress towards the solution. He noted that cats would learn to escape from puzzle boxes more quickly if the response selected produced an immediate escape. The cats would try a repertoire of behaviors to open the box, and gradually learn to more quickly select the one that produced escape. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Thorndike and Operant Conditioning But overall, it appeared to Thorndike that the cats were not “understanding” the connections between the solution and the escape. There was no sudden increase in the learning curve to support that assumption. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Figure 6.13 According to Thorndike, a cat starts with a large set of potential behaviors in a given situation. When one of these, such as pushing at a pole, leads to reinforcement, the future probability of that behavior increases. We do not need to assume that the cat understands what it is doing or why. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Thorndike and Operant Conditioning Thorndike observed that the escape from the box acted as a reinforcement for the behavior that led to the escape. A reinforcement is an event that increases the future probability of the most recent response. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Thorndike’s Law of Effect “Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected to the situation, so that, when it (the situation) recurs, they will be more likely to recur.” Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Operant Conditioning The type of learning that Thorndike studies has come to be known as operant or instrumental conditioning. Operant conditioning is the process of changing behavior by following a response with a reinforcement. In operant conditioning, the subject’s behavior determines an outcome and is affected by that outcome. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Operant Conditioning Classical conditioning is distinguished from operant conditioning in that the subject’s behavior has no effect on the outcome. Classical conditioning usually influences visceral, reflexive, and involuntary responses, while operant conditioning applies to skeletal, somatic, and voluntary responses. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Table 6.2 Comparison of classical conditioning and operant conditioning Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Processes of Operant Conditioning In operant conditioning, extinction occurs if responses stop producing reinforcements. A child for whom you are babysitting whines until you give him a cookie. If you stop giving the child cookies, he will eventually stop whining. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Processes of Operant Conditioning Stimulus generalization occurs when a new stimulus is similar to the original reinforced stimulus. The more similar the new stimulus is to the old, the more strongly the subject is likely to respond. The child for whom you are babysitting falls and scrapes his knee. He is crying inconsolably. You give him a cookie. He continues to whine and cry on and off all afternoon, stopping for brief periods after you give him a cookie. The stimulus of his whining has generalized to crying and whining. You are responding to both. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Processes of Operant Conditioning Discrimination occurs when someone is reinforced for responding to one stimulus but not another. The individual will respond more vigorously to one than to the other. If you stop giving the child cookies when he cries but continue when he whines, he will whine much more often than he will cry. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Processes of Operant Conditioning A stimulus that indicates which response is appropriate or inappropriate is called a discriminative stimulus. The child for whom you baby-sit does not whine for cookies when his mother is present, because she never gives in to his whining. As soon as she leaves, he is at your knee whining for a cookie. The presence of his mother has become a discriminative stimulus. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Phenomena of Operant Conditioning The ability of a stimulus to encourage some responses and discourage others is known as stimulus control. When his mother is present, the child for whom you baby-sit asks her politely for some juice and bread. When his mother is absent, he whines for cookies. The presence or absence of one stimulus after another signals to him which behaviors will or will not be reinforced. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Processes of Operant Conditioning Thorndike noted that some responses are more easily learned than others. The cats learned to escape from the mazes relatively quickly, but learned to scratch themselves on cue slowly and inconsistently. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Figure 6.14 According to Thorndike’s principle of belongingness, some items are easy to associate with each other because they “belong” together; others do not. For example, dogs easily learn to use the direction of a sound as a signal for which leg to raise, but they have trouble using the type of sound as a signal for which leg to raise. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Phenomena of Operant Conditioning One possible explanation for this is belongingness. Belongingness is the concept that certain stimuli are classified together or more readily associated with certain outcomes more so than with others. Some psychologists also refer this to as “preparedness”. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning B.F. Skinner and the Shaping of Behavior B.F. Skinner is considered to be the most influential of all radical behaviorists. He demonstrated many potential applications of operant conditioning. He was a firm believer in parsimony, seeking simple explanations in terms of reinforcement histories, and avoiding the inference of complex mental processes. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Shaping Behavior Shaping establishes new responses by reinforcing successive approximations to it. Skinner used an “operant chamber” (referred to as a “Skinner box” by others) into which he put the animal he wished to train by shaping. Gradually the animal was reinforced for behaviors that approached the desired activity until it actually performed the behavior in full. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Shaping Behavior For example, to make a pigeon turn in a complete clockwise circle, Skinner would first reinforce the pigeon with food for just turning a few degrees to the right. After the pigeon began turning to the right regularly, he would cease reinforcing until the pigeon turned a few more degrees in that direction, and when that behavior was established, wait until the pigeon turned more pronouncedly to the right, and reinforce that movement, until finally the pigeon turned completely around in a circle. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Chaining Behavior Chaining is an operant conditioning method where behaviors are reinforced by opportunities to engage in the next behavior The animal learns the final behavior, and then the next to last, and so on, until the beginning of the sequence is reached. Eating is an example of a chained behavior in humans. Most of us first learn to eat with utensils, and gradually acquire the preceding activities of getting and preparing food. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Increasing and Decreasing the Frequency of Responses A reinforcement is an event that increases the probability that a response will be repeated. A punishment is an event that decreases the probability of a response. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Reinforcement and Punishment A reinforcement can be either the presentation of a desirable item such as money or food, or the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, such as verbal nagging or physical pain. A punishment can be the removal of a desirable condition such as driving privileges or the presentation of an unpleasant condition such as physical pain. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Reinforcement and Punishment All things being equal, most people will respond better to both immediate reinforcement and immediate punishment. Most punishments are given in American society for behaviors that are immediately reinforcing. The punishments may or may not occur. The threat of punishment under these conditions is not an effective tool for changing behavior. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Reinforcement and Punishment Punishment tends to be ineffective except for temporarily suppressing undesirable behavior. Mild, logical and consistent punishment can be informative and helpful. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Table 6.1 Four categories of operant conditioning Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check Most people who speed are not put off this infraction by the threat of a speeding ticket and fine. Based on what you have learned about the efficacy of punishment as a training method, why do you think this is? Because the threat of the punishment is highly uncertain – very few people get pulled over relative to the number who speed – and the behavior is very immediately gratifying. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Reinforcements and Punishments The presentation of an event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of an event is called positive reinforcement. A parent praises a child for excellent performance on a test. A waiter receives an extra large tip for good service. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Reinforcements and Punishments Punishment is referred to as passive avoidance learning because in response to punishment an individual learns to avoid the outcome by being passive. A child learns to avoid the punishment of being sent to his room for the evening by not teasing his little sister. A woman avoids distress by not calling her sister who always says cruel things whenever they talk. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Reinforcements and Punishments Omission training occurs when the omission of the response produces reinforcement. Producing the response also leads to a lack of reinforcement. This is sometimes referred to as negative punishment. Parents tell a teenager that if she breaks curfew again, she will lose her driving privileges for a month. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Reinforcements and Punishments Escape learning or active avoidance learning occurs if the responses lead to an escape from or an avoidance of something painful. This is sometimes referred to as negative reinforcement. A teenager cleans his room to avoid listening to any more of his dad’s nagging. A babysitter gives a cookie to a child to stop his whining. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check What type of learning has occurred? You don’t go into your friend’s greenhouse because you get a headache and sore throat whenever you go in with him. Passive avoidance learning Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check What type of learning has occurred? Your little brother locks you in his room and plays the Barney theme song at full volume until you tell him what Mom and Dad are giving him for his birthday. Active avoidance learning (negative reinforcement) Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check What type of learning has occurred? You win a $1,000.00 scholarship for your high GPA. Positive reinforcement Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check What type of learning has occurred? You put on your sunglasses because the bright sun is making your eyes hurt. Active avoidance learning Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check What type of learning has occurred? You are not late for psychology class because your professor will deduct points from your final grade if you are. Omission training – negative punishment Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check What type of learning has occurred? You send flowers to your sweetheart because you always get extra affection and compliments after you do so. Positive reinforcement Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check What type of learning has occurred? You really want to pass this class so you never have to sit through it again. Active avoidance learning – negative reinforcement Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning What Constitutes Reinforcement? A reinforcer is something that increases the likelihood of the preceding response. This can be confusing because it leads to a circular explanation. It can also be confusing because although generally a reinforcer is a pleasant event, it doesn’t have to be. What constitutes a “pleasant event” can be hard to define or vary from person to person. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning What Constitutes Reinforcement? Many reinforcers satisfy biological needs, such as hunger. Addictive behaviors don’t seem to give much pleasure to the addict (although they may be negatively reinforcing done to avoid the unpleasant condition of not having access to the drug.) Some reinforcers don’t satisfy any immediate need, but may represent a future opportunity to have greater access to resources (such as a good grade – you can’t eat it, but getting many of them may raise your chances of having more to eat later in your life.) Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning What Constitutes Reinforcement? The Premack Principle The Premack Principle states that the opportunity to engage in frequent behavior will be a reinforcer for any less-frequent behavior. A person who prefers going to the movies to going to museums can be reinforced for extra trips to the museum with free movie passes. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning What Constitutes Reinforcement? The disequilibrium principle The disequilibrium principle states that each person has a preferred pattern of dividing time between various activities and if the person is removed from that pattern a return to it will be reinforcing. A person who must work overtime for the next three weekends makes an extra effort to finish up the assigned work to return to his preferred activity of playing golf. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check Using the disequilibrium principle and positive reinforcement, how would you encourage more studying in a child who is getting poor grades due to insufficient studying? Determine the child’s preferred after school activity and tie set amounts of time spent doing that activity to the completion of a minimum number of minutes or hours studying. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning What Constitutes Reinforcement? Unconditioned reinforcers meet primary, biological needs and are found to be reinforcing for almost everyone. Food and drink are unconditioned reinforcers. Conditioned reinforcers are effective because they have become associated with unconditioned reinforcers. Money and grades are conditioned reinforcers. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Learning What Leads to What Thorndike had a strictly mechanical view of reinforcement. An animal that receives reinforcement for a behavior will perform that behavior more frequently. No learning will take place without reinforcement, and no understanding of the reason for the behaviors is necessary. A rat learns to run a maze because food is present at the end of the alleys that lead to the exit from the maze. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Learning What Leads to What The idea of latent learning, on the other hand, suggests that learning may occur in animals without being demonstrated until the reward is presented. A rat is left to explore and sniff around in a maze. When presented with the possibility of a reward of food, he runs the maze as fast as the rat that was painstakingly trained with rewards to run the same maze. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Schedules of Reinforcement A schedule of reinforcement is a set of rules of procedures for delivery of reinforcement It is used to maintain a learned behavior that might be extinguished if reinforcement ceased. A continuous reinforcement schedule provides reinforcement every time a response occurs. However, outside of the laboratory, reinforcement rarely follows every occurrence of a desired behavior. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Schedules of Reinforcement Most schedules of reinforcement are intermittent. In other words, some responses are reinforced and others are not. One of the two major categories of intermittent reinforcement is ratio, in which the delivery of reinforcement depends on the number of responses given by the individual. The second category of intermittent reinforcement is interval, in which delivery of reinforcement depends on the amount of time that has passed since the last reinforcement. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Schedules of Reinforcement A fixed-ratio schedule provides reinforcement only after a certain (“fixed”) number of correct responses have been made. For example, a laboratory rat being reinforced for hitting a lever after every 5 hits is being reinforced on an FR-5 schedule. The local gourmet coffee shop gives you a card that says if you buy 9 coffee drinks you will get the 10th beverage for free. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Schedules of Reinforcement A variable-ratio schedule provides reinforcement after a variable number of correct responses, usually working out to an average in the long run. For example, a baseball player who has a .333 batting average is reinforcing fans with hits on a VR-3 schedule. Slot machines, like all gambling, provide a particularly compelling form of variable ratio reinforcement to the player. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Schedules of Reinforcement A fixed-interval schedule provides reinforcement for the first response made after a specific time interval. A person who is paid every two weeks is reinforced for work on a fixed interval schedule. You receive your local newspaper at the same time every day. You probably have a good idea of when to start checking for it. This is a fixed interval schedule. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Schedules of Reinforcement A variable-interval schedule provides reinforcement after a variable amount of time has elapsed. If your newspaper delivery person is very inconsistent about delivery times, showing up one day at 5:00AM, the next day at 7:30AM, etc., your paper is delivered on a variable interval schedule. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Table 6.3 Some schedules of reinforcement Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Schedules of Reinforcement All things being equal, extinction of responses tends to take longer when an individual has been on an intermittent schedule rather than a continuous schedule. One explanation for this difference is that the lack of reinforcement does not signify the completion cessation of reinforcements to the individual who has been on an intermittent schedule. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check Name the reinforcement schedule You are paid $10.00 for every 100 envelopes that you stuff. Fixed ratio Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check Name the reinforcement schedule You receive e-mail from your friend who is studying in France this semester at about an average of 1 note every 4 days. Variable interval Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Concept Check Name the reinforcement schedule Your very reliable oven bakes a batch of cookies in 10 minutes. Fixed interval Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Applications of Operant Conditioning There are a wide variety of applications for the techniques of operant conditioning including, but not limited to: Animal training for performance, military, and helper animals. Persuasion in political and commercial enterprises. Psychological treatment, through the use of applied behavior analysis or behavior modification. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Applications of Operant Conditioning In behavior modification, the clinician determines which reinforcers sustain an undesirable or unwanted behavior. The clinician then tries to change the behavior by reducing the opportunities for reinforcement of the unwanted behavior and providing reinforcers for a more acceptable behavior. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Operant Conditioning People are sometimes offended by the idea that the possibility of positive reinforcement might influence behavior. You wouldn’t work hard in a course or a job if your performance didn’t matter and all the grades or bonuses were given with no regard to quality. Operant conditioning provides one enormously useful and powerful way to change and improve behavior. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Module 6.4 Other Kinds of Learning Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Conditioned Taste Aversions If learning occurs reliably after just one trial, it is hard to know if the learning was a result of classical conditioning or operant conditioning One kind of learning that occurs after a single trial is an association between eating something and getting sick. This is referred to as a conditioned taste aversion. Many species appear to have a built in predisposition to associate illness with what they have consumed, even if some time has elapsed between the consumption of the substance and the onset of the illness. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Birdsong Learning The beautiful songs of male birds may be delightful to our ears, but they are serious business for the bird The songs are crucial for soliciting the attentions of a suitable mate. They are also a warning to potential interlopers in the singer’s territory. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Birdsong Learning Some species of songbird are especially dependent on the process of hearing live songs of older males of the same species in order to develop a normal song. There is a sensitive period early in the bird’s life during which he will learn the song most readily. The young bird will also learn better from a live male than from a tape recording, and will not learn the songs of other species. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Birdsong Learning Birdsong learning resembles human language learning in some ways. It requires a social context, has an optimal period for learning early in life, starts with a kind of babbling, and tends to deteriorate if the individual becomes deaf later in life. It differs from classical conditioning in that the song the baby male bird learns from is not an unconditioned stimulus – it elicits no response. It differs from operant conditioning in that during the sensitive period there is no apparent reinforcement of the learning. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Social Learning The social-learning approach, defined first by Albert Bandura, states that we learn about many behaviors before we attempt them for the first time. Much learning, especially in humans, results from observing the behaviors of others and from imagining the consequences of our own. Two of the chief components of social learning are modeling and imitation. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Social Learning Bandura and his assistants did experiments in which children watched films of real people and cartoon characters either attacked an inflated “Bobo” doll or did not. Children who saw the versions of the films with aggressive behavior were more likely to repeat those actions when left alone with a similar toy. The implication was that the children were imitating the aggressive behavior they had just witnessed in the film. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Social Learning There has been great interest in the work of Bandura and those who have done further research along these lines because of the controversy over violence in TV programs and movies. It is unclear if there is a direct relationship between televised or cinematic violence and violent behavior. People vary widely in the degree to which they are open to the influence of violent imagery. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Vicarious Reinforcement and Punishment Another aspect of the social learning approach is the idea that we are more likely to imitate behaviors that have been rewarding for other people, and we are less likely to imitate behaviors that create unpleasant results for others. This substitution of someone else’s experiences for one’s own is referred to as vicarious reinforcement or punishment. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Vicarious Reinforcement and Punishment The effectiveness of vicarious reinforcement and punishment parallels that of direct reinforcement and punishment. Vicarious reinforcement appears to be more effective in creating behavioral change than vicarious punishment is. It may be that people are more able to use cognition to avoid identifying with others whose behaviors brought about serious or fatal consequences. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Self-Efficacy in Social Learning We tend to imitate people we admire. Advertisers are keenly aware of this tendency and routinely use endorsements from celebrities and sports figures, and images of the happy, healthy, affluent people that most of us would like to be. We do not however model ourselves after every admirable figure that we encounter. We imitate others only when we have a sense of self-efficacy, when we perceive ourselves as also being able to perform the task successfully. Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat Chapter 6: Learning Learning Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, conditioned taste aversions, and social learning represent a diverse set of influences on human behavior. Your everyday behavior is in large part a product of the combined effects of these processes.