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INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOLOGY
MIDTERM REVIEW
Chapters 1-6
Chapter 1
Foundations
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What is psychology?
Psychology is the scientific study of our
thoughts, feelings and behaviors
What is an “approach” or “perspective” in
psychology?
An approach or perspective in psychology is a
particular view as to why, and how, it is we
think, feel, and behave as we do
Chapter 1
Foundations
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What is Behavioral Psychology?
Behavioral Psychology is basically interested
in how our behavior results from the stimuli
both in the environment and within ourselves.
Who are the most known Behavioral
Psychologists?
Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner, Watson
Chapter 1
Foundations
What is Biological Perspective?
 The biological approach believes us to
be as a consequence of our genetics
and physiology. It is the only approach
in psychology that examines thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors from a physical
point of view.
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Chapter 1
Foundations
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What is Evolutionary Psychology?
Evolutionary psychology focus on how
evolution has shaped the mind and behavior
What is Developmental Psychology?
Developmental psychology, also known as
Human Development, is the scientific study
of progressive psychological changes that
occur in human beings as they age.
Chapter 1
Foundations
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What is Psychodynamic Approach?
Sigmund Freud was the founder of the
psychodynamic approach to psychology. This
school of thought emphasized the influence of
the unconscious mind on behavior.
What is Cognitive Approach?
Focus on our information processes of
perception, attention, language, memory, and
thinking, and how they influence our thoughts,
feelings and behaviors.
Chapter 1
Scientific Research
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What is the aim of the psychological
studies?
The goals of psychological studies are to
describe, explain, predict, and perhaps
influence mental processes or behavior.
What is a scientific research?
The scientific method is a set of principles and
procedures that are used by researchers to
develop questions, collect data, and reach
conclusions.
Chapter 1
Scientific Research
How are research methods in
psychology are divided?
 Research methods that are
experimental in design include the
laboratory, field and quasi-experiment.
Non-experimental methods include
the observational, survey, interview and
case study methods.
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Chapter 1
Scientific Research
What is a “naturalistic observation”
method?
 It means, observing behavior in their
natural environment.
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Chapter 1
Scientific Research
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of
“naturalistic observation” method?
Advantages
– high degree of realism because are in natural
environments, data on large number of variables can
be collected at the same time, researcher doesn't
have as great an impact on the study as he/she may in
other strategies
Disadvantages
– variables not manipulated by the researcher, unable
to infer causality, measurement of variables less
precise than in laboratory
Chapter 1
Scientific Research
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What is a correlational study?
Correlation means relationship, so the
purpose of a correlational study is to
determine if a relationship exists, what
direction the relationship is, and how strong it
is. It can not make any assumptions of
cause and effect (no causation).
Chapter 1
Scientific Research
What are the possible results of correlational
study?
 There are three possible results of a correlational
study:
a positive correlation: Both variables increase or
decrease at the same time (ex:more eating more
weight)
a negative correlation: Indicates that as the amount of
one variable increases, the other decreases (and vice
versa) (ex: more smoking, less healthy)
no correlation: Indicates no relationship between the
two variables.(ex: more study,more tall you get)
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Chapter 1
Scientific Research
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What are the advantages and
disadvantages of correlational study?
Advantages
– shows if two or more variables are related
– allows general predictions
– used both in natural and laboratory
settings
Disadvantages
– Does not permit identification of cause
and effect
Chapter 1
Scientific Research
What is an experimental study?
 In an experiment, a researcher
manipulates or changes a particular
variable under controlled conditions
while observing resulting changes in
another variable or variables.
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Chapter 1
Scientific Research
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What is a dependant and independant
variable?
Independent Variable (IV) – the variable
that is manipulated by the experimenter
(input variable)-effects the experimenter
wishes to examine.
Dependent Variable (DV) – the outcome
variable (results of the experiment)experimenter wants to find out if this variable
depends on some other factor.
Chapter 1
Scientific Research
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How many groups are there in experimental
studies?
The control group: made up of individuals who are
randomly assigned to a group but do not receive the
treatment. The measures takes from the control group
are then compared to those in the experimental group
to determine if the treatment had an effect.
The experimental group: made up of individuals who
are randomly assigned to the group and then receive
the treatment. The scores of these participants are
compared to those in the control group to determine if
the treatment had an effect.
Chapter 1
Scientific Research
How are the experimental studies
carried out?
 The researcher manipulates the
independent variable and observes the
dependent variable. The dependent
variable may be affected by changes in
the independent variable. In other
words, the dependent variable depends
(or is thought to depend) on the
independent variable.
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Chapter 1
Scientific Research
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What are the advantages and disadvantages
of experimental studies?
Advantages
– allows researcher to control the situation
– Permits researcher to identify cause and
effect
Disadvantages
– situation is artificial and can not be always
generalised to the real world
– sometimes difficult to avoid experimenter
effects
Chapter 2
Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior
What is Darwin’s theory of
evolution?
 Certain differences among individuals
are adaptive. The individuals who
possess the adaptive characteristics
are more likely to survive and
reproduce in the environment into
which they are born. Some adaptive
differences among individuals are
inherited.
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Chapter 2
Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior
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What is Darwin’s theory of evolution?
Cont’d...
The environment does not contain enough
resources to support all individuals.
A struggle for existence occurs among individuals;
those who possess the most adaptive
characteristics, by definition, win the struggle.
Individuals who survive and reproduce pass on their
adaptive characteristics to their offspring, who are
more inclined to inherit these adaptive traits than the
offspring of parents who do not possess them.
Chapter 2
Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior
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What is a “set point”?
a weight the body tries to maintain (the
target)
What are the Built-in systems (organs) for
regulating food intake?
Liver
 Hypothalamus
 Stomach and Duodenum
 Adipose Tissue
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Chapter 2
Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior
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Why are there so many organs for regulating
food in take?
Safety provided by backup systems
– If one system fails, the organism is still
protected
Different signals monitor different aspects of our
nutritional needs
– Leptin-longer term needs
– Others (cues from stomach)-hour-by-hour
energy requirement variations
Chapter 2
Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior
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What are the parts of our nervous system”,
explain...
Central Nervous System (CNS)
– The brain and spinal cord
Peripheric Nervous System (PNS)
– System of nerves outside of the brain and
spinal cord
– Send control to the glands and smooth
muscles
– Controls internal organs, usually not under
voluntary control
Chapter 2
Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior
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What are the parts of “autonomic nervous
system”? Explain...
Sympathetic: Triggered when body temperature is too
low. Revives up body activity to prepare for rigorous
activity. Increased heart rate, slowing down of
peristalsis for not using energy during digestion
Vasoconstriction (Contraction of skins capillaries)
Parasympathetic: Triggered when body’s temperature
is too high. Restored body’s internal activities, Cardio
slowing, speeds up peristalsis, vasolidation (Widening
of skin’s capillaries)
Chapter 2
Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior
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What kind of internal adjustments happen
when we feel threathened?
Sympathetic branch of ANS activated
Prepares body for immediate, intense
activity. Surge of adrenaline released
Chapter 2
Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior
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What is the difference between male and
female aggression?
The male is the far more aggressive sex. This
gender difference holds only for physical
aggression. Testosterone (the male sex
hormone) is associated with physical
aggressiveness in many species. Males use
physical aggression (pushing and punching).
Females use social aggression (spreading
gossip and rumors, isolating unwanted friends).
Chapter 2
Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior
What is territoriality?
 Acquisition and protection of resources,
usually territory: source of most
aggression. Often expressed in
humans as “personal space”
preferences. Vary by culture; much is
learned
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Chapter 2
Evolution and the Biological Roots of
Behavior
How do we learn to be aggressive?
 Explicit learning: someone demands or
teaches us
 Implicit: we observe
 Seems to be causal; when we observe
violence, we become violent
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Chapter 3
The Brain and the Nervous System
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How is the nervous system studied?
Clinical observation
– Observing the change in behavior after a brain
damage
Neuropsychology
– what happens to behavior when brain structures are
damaged
Experimental techniques
– Lesioning brain structures, observing consequences
– Transcranial magnetic stimulation: temporary loss of
brain function in isolated areas near surface of brain
(just under scalp)
Chapter 3
The Brain and the Nervous System
What are neuroimaging techniques
used for?
 To examine structures and functioning
of brain
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What are the types of neuroimaging
techniques?
 CE, MRI, fMRI, EEG
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Chapter 3
The Brain and the Nervous System
What is a CT technique?
 Images created from multiple x-ray
images of brain. It only shows structure.
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What are functional neuroimaging
techniques?
 fMRI and EEG
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Chapter 3
The Brain and the Nervous System
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What are the names and functions of lobes of
the Cortex?
Frontal Lobes —receive and coordinate
messages from other lobes as well as motor
control, speech and higher functions
Parietal Lobes —receives information about
pressure, pain, touch and temperature
Temporal Lobes —hearing, language
comprehension, memory and some emotional
control
Occipital Lobes —vision and visual perception
Chapter 3
The Brain and the Nervous System
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What is Corpus Collosum?
The Cerebral Cortex is divided into two hemispheres (left
and right) connected by the Corpus Collosum
What are the functions of left and right brain
(Lateralization)?
Left Brain: Language Functions (speaking, reading,
writing, and understanding language), analytical
Functions (mathematics, physical sciences), right-hand
touch
Right Brain: Non-verbal abilities (music, art, perceptual
and spatial manipulation, facial recognition), some
language comprehension, left-hand touch
Chapter 3
The Brain and the Nervous System
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What is Broca’s and Wernicke’s area?
Broca’s Area
 an area of the left frontal lobe that directs
the muscle movements involved in speech
(speech production)
 Wernicke’s Area
 an area of the left temporal lobe involved
in language comprehension and
expression (speech comprehension)
Chapter 3
The Brain and the Nervous System
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What is apraxia?
inability to initiate or carry out learned
complex (2+ steps) motor action
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What is agnosia?
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inability to identify familiar objects
(persons, sounds, shapes or smells)
using the affected sense
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Chapter 3
The Brain and the Nervous System
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What is brain “plasticity”?
Plasticity means “Subject to alteration”.
Historically, nervous system deemed NOT
plastic. New evidenceshows that neurons
can change, form new connections with other
neurons, even can take the place of the
damaged cells in the brain. As a result, the
brain itself can entirely change.
Chapter 5 Perception
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What are the dimensions on our retinal
image?
Width and height
What makes us see objects as threedimensional?
Depth perception: Ability to see threedimensional space and to accurately judge
distances
Chapter 5 Perception
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What are the types of depth cues?
Binocular (two eyes)
Monocular(one eye)
What is “binocular disparity”?
We compare the retinal image in one eye to the retinal
image in the other; they differ: each eye is a slightly
different distance from an object in the world. The
disparity between the views serves as a powerful cue for
depth
Chapter 5 Perception
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What are Monocular cues?
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Interposition: When one object partly blocks your view of
another, you perceive the partially blocked object as farther
away
Linear Perspective: Parallel lines that are known to be the
same distance apart appear to grow closer together, or
converge, as they recede into the distance
Texture Gradients: The texture of objects tend to become
smoother as the object gets farther away, suggesting that
more detailed textured objects are closer.
Relative size: Larger objects are perceived as being closer to
the viewer, and smaller objects as being farther away
Light and shadow: the location of the shadow
Motion parallax: relative velocity of objects moving across the
retina of a moving person
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Chapter 5 Perception
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What is “size constancy”?
Refers to our ability to see objects as maintaining
the same size even when our distance from them
makes things appear larger or smaller.
What is “shape constancy?
Perceiving objects as having a stable or
unchanging shape regardless of changes in the
retinal image resulting from differences in
viewing angle
Chapter 5 Perception
What is “apparent motion”?
 When intervals between images occur
at correct timing (not too far apart in
time) we perceive motion
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Chapter 5 Perception
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What is “Gestalt Psychology”?
The German word "Gestalt" roughly means
to "whole" or "form" . According to Gestalt
psychologists, “The whole is greater than the
sum of its parts.” It means, in order to
interpret what we receive through our
senses, we attempt to organize this
information into certain groups. Therefore,
sense of shape is derived from the whole,
not the sum of its parts
Chapter 5 Perception
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What are Gestalt principles of organization?
Issues of figure/ground: we seem to have an innate
tendency to pereive one aspect of an event as the figure
or fore-ground and the other as the ground or background.
Similarity: we will tend to group similar items together.
Proximity: Things that are close together as seen as
belonging together
Good continuation: We tend to perceive things in good
form
Closure: if something is missing in an otherwise complete
figure, we will tend to add it
– “subjective contours”
Chapter 5 Perception
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What does classical approach to perception tells
about the role of the perceiver?
In classical approach to perception emphasis is on
the active, constructive role of the perceiver, who
routinely:
– Resolves ambiguous figures
– Determines identity of objects based on
contextual clues and previous knowledge
– Determines identity of objects based on
contextual clues
Chapter 5 Perception
How do “illusions” happen?
 Cues sometimes cause an overestimate or under-estimate; slight
over/under interpretations can cause us
to misinterpret the information we
receive
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Chapter 6 Learning
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What is “learning”?
Learning is a relatively permanent change in an
organism’s behavior due to past experience
What is “habituation”?
Decline of organism’s response to stimulus once
that stimulus becomes familiar; simply getting
used to... Organism does not learn anything
new from that event
Chapter 6 Learning
What is classical conditoning?
 Organism comes to associate two
stimuli; a neutral one and one that
already causes a reflexive response
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Chapter 6 Learning
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What is unconditioned stimulus and
unconditioned response?
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
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stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and
naturally--triggers a response
Unconditioned Response (UR)
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unlearned, naturally occurring response to the
unconditioned stimulus
Chapter 6 Learning
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What is conditioned stimulus and
conditioned response?
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
 originally irrelevant and neutral stimulus that,
after association with an unconditioned stimulus,
comes to trigger a conditioned response
Conditioned Response (CR)
 learned response to a previously neutral
conditioned stimulus
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Chapter 6 Learning
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In Pavlov’s experiment what is US, UR, CS
and CR?
US: food
UR: salivation
CS: bell
CR: salivation
Chapter 6 Learning
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What is “extinction”?
The dying out of a conditioned response.
Conditioned Response will gradually disappear if the
CS is repeteadly presented by itself; without the
Unconditioned Stimulus
What is spontaneous recovery?
Extinction does not work by “erasing” the original
learning. The animal keeps some memories of the
learning, therefore extinction can be undone
Chapter 6 Learning
What is “generalization”?
 CS that resemble each other (even if never
paired with the US) can elicit the CR
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What is discrimination?
 Ability to make fine discriminations of what
will and what won’t elicit the CR
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Chapter 6 Learning
What is the “role of surprise” in
learning?
 Surprise plays a key role in
conditioning. Learning occurs only
when events are not in line with our
expectations. Otherwise we don’t need
to learn anything new about the
environment.
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Chapter 6 Learning
What is instrumental conditioning?
 Many of our behaviors are “voluntary”,
initiated and controlled by the organism
itself. Subject’s behavior determines an
outcome and is subsequently impacted
by that outcome
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Chapter 6 Learning
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What is the difference between classical
conditioning plus habituation and instrumental
conditioning?
Neither habituation nor classical conditioning
teaches the organism a new response.
You just learn to associate an existing response
(salivating) with a new stimulus (the bell) and create
reflexes. Key difference from Classical Conditioning:
subject’s behavior determines an outcome and is
subsequently impacted by that outcome
Chapter 6 Learning
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Who found “Law of Effect”, explain...
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed
by favorable consequences become more
likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable
consequences become less likely. In
instrumental conditioning the animal or
person must produce some behavior to get a
reward or avoid a punishment. If a particular
voluntary response is followed by a reward,
that response will be strengthened (the
response comes from within).
Chapter 6 Learning
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What is a “reinforcer” and what are the
types of reincorcer?
Any event that strengthens the behavior it
follows
– Positive: it’s exisitence helps to create
the desired behavior (food, drink etc)
– Negative: it’s non-existence helps to
create the desired behavior (loud noise,
electric shock etc)
Chapter 6 Learning
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What was Tolman’s contribution to instrumental
conditioning?
Tolman: demonstrated “latent learning” (Learning
that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an
incentive to demonstrate it) using an operant
conditioning paradigm
– Rats explored a maze with no reward
– Later, under conditions of reward: could
demonstrate formation of a “cognitive map”
(mental representation of the layout of one’s
environment)
– Indicated that learning had taken place, not
“mere” conditioning
Chapter 6 Learning
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What is “learned helplessness”? and how
does it show itself in “depression”?
Control over environment lessens
stress/distress; sense of futility, or lack of
control, increases stress/distress. In
depression, patient was once in a state
where she was really helpless, and therefore,
believes that there is no contingency
between acts and outcomes, and so no point
in trying.
Chapter 6 Learning
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Make a brief comparison of classical conditioning
and instrumental conditioning