* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Review for final exam
Survey
Document related concepts
Psychological effects of Internet use wikipedia , lookup
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development wikipedia , lookup
Personality psychology wikipedia , lookup
Social group wikipedia , lookup
Father absence wikipedia , lookup
Childhood gender nonconformity wikipedia , lookup
Thin-slicing wikipedia , lookup
Psychological behaviorism wikipedia , lookup
Social psychology wikipedia , lookup
Impression formation wikipedia , lookup
Dyadic developmental psychotherapy wikipedia , lookup
Cinderella effect wikipedia , lookup
Cognitive development wikipedia , lookup
Parent management training wikipedia , lookup
Transcript
REVIEW FOR FINAL EXAM Understanding the Life-Span Nature-nurture issue Refers to the questions of how biological and environmental forces impact development Assumptions of the life-span perspective Development is lifelong Development is multidimensional and multidirectional Development is highly plastic Development is affected by multiple interacting forces Understanding the Life-Span Research designs Experimental: allows inferences about cause and effect because researchers use random assignment of participants into two or more conditions/groups Cross-sectional: groups of people differing in ages are studied at the same point in time or at different points in time Longitudinal: participants are studied repeatedly, and changes are noted as they get older Sequential: several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies are conducted at varying times Behavioral observation***: uses both interviews and naturalistic observation over a period of time to determine age related changes Understanding the Life-Span Research design examples: Experimental A study of the effects of times spent reading on preschoolers vocabulary A group of preschoolers are randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups 1) reads for 2 hours per day for 2 weeks 2) reads for 1 hour per day for 2 weeks 3) does not read for 2 weeks At the end of 2 weeks preschoolers are given a vocabulary test Understanding the Life-Span Example: Longitudinal A study on the development of contact initiation behaviors A group of preschoolers are interviewed and also observed under natural conditions in order to study the ways in which they initiate contact with their peers Every two years after the initial observations, the same group of preschoolers are interviewed again and observed in order to determine how their contact strategies change over time The study is concluded when the children reach adolescence Understanding the Life-Span Example: Cross-sectional A study of video game playing in children Different age groups are assessed (5, 10, 15 yearolds) for the average number of hours per day spent playing video games Assessment occurs at different times 5 year-olds are assessed in 2003 10 year-olds are assessed in 2004 15 year-olds are assessed in 2005 Understanding the Life-Span Example: Sequential A study examining the effects of low-SES on children’s academic/professional success Sample of 10 preschoolers are followed over a period of at least 20 years After 5 years another group of preschoolers are added to the study who will also be followed for 20 years Theories of Human Development Freud and Psychodynamics Id – the largest portion of the mind, is the source of biological needs and desires Always wants to lash out in childlike ways, like throwing a temper tantrum if your parent wont let you eat ice cream after school Ego – the conscious, rational part of personality, redirects the id’s impulses in socially acceptable ways EGO Compromises in socially acceptable ways, like promising a parent that if you are allowed to eat ice cream after school, you will eat double the normal amount of veggies at dinner time Superego – the conscience, represents the values of society to which one must conform Makes one aware of what is moral and immoral in the eyes of society, knowing its not acceptable to hit a playmate to get his toy SUPEREGO ID Theories of Human Development Classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus – natural stimulus that produces a reflex Unconditioned response – natural reflex to some natural stimulus Conditioned stimulus – stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, now elicits a response similar to a reflex Conditioned response – the response to a conditioned stimulus Ex. On Monday, you are eating Oreos while watching TV and a creepy clown on a commercial scares you really bad and you scream Then on Tuesday you see Oreos in the grocery store and you get a scared feeling On Monday Creepy clown = unconditioned stimulus Scream = unconditioned response On Tuesday Oreos = conditioned stimulus Scared feeling = conditioned response Theories of Human Development Operant conditioning Basically states that the consequences that follow a behavior impact the likelihood of the behavior to increase or decrease Operant conditioning terms Reinforcer: always increases the occurrence of a behavior Positive reinforcer: something positive happens every time the target behavior occurs Negative reinforcer: removing something negative every time the behavior occurs You get a cookie every time you put your dishes in the dishwasher after dinner, so you will put your dishes away more frequently When you have a headache, you take an Advil which makes the pain go away, thus you will take an Advil every time you have a headache Punishment: always decreases the occurrence of a behavior Negative punishment: taking away something positive every time the behavior occurs When you don’t put your cloths in the hamper, your mom takes a privilege away so you will stop leaving cloths on the floor Positive punishment: presenting something negative every time the behavior occurs You are spanked every time you throw a tantrum in public so you will stop acting out in public Genes, Environment and Development Gene – segment of DNA along the length of the chromosome Genetic inheritance Two forms of each gene occur at the same place on the chromosomes, one inherited from the mother and one from the father Only one allele affects the child’s characteristics Dominant allele = X Only when there are two recessive alleles will a recessive trait be inherited Ex. Mom is xx, dad is Xx Possible kids’ pairings: xX and xx If a dominant allele is present it will always be the trait that is inherited Recessive allele = x Each form of a gene is called an allele Means 50% of their kids would have the dominant trait Ex. Mom is xx, dad is XX Possible kids’ pairings: xX Means 100% of their kids would have the dominant trait Genes, Environment and Development Heritability – the proportion of the differences in a trait among a group of people that is due to genetic differences among these people You inherit traits from your genes, so the differences in a group of people on a specific trait due to genetic differences reflect how “inheritable” that trait is… thus heritability Genes, Environment and Development Remember the genetic-environment correlation? It means that our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed An active-genetic/environmental correlation is when our disposition affects the sorts of environments we find ourselves in Ex. A shy child is probably going to have different experiences than an extremely active/outgoing child Prenatal Development and Birth The 3 periods of prenatal development are (from earliest to latest): Teratogen – an environmental agent that causes a birth defect How severely a teratogen affects the developing baby depends on ALL 3 of these: Germinal > embryo > fetus The length of exposure or “dose” of the teratogen The timing of the exposure of the teratogen The genetic make-up of the embryo or fetus If a mother does not get adequate nutrition during pregnancy and does not gain the appropriate amount of weight (25-30 lbs) The most likely negative outcome for the baby is mental impairments The Physical Self Secular trends – are generational changes Ex. In North America, people get taller with each generation Dynamic systems perspective – mastery of motor skills involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of action When motor skills blend together, each cooperating with others to produce more effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment Ex. Control of the head and upper chest combine into sitting Ex. Standing, stepping, and improved upright posture control combine into walking Ex. A 10 month-old realizes that rolling over doesn’t get him very far, but then figures out how to crawl across a room to get a favorite toy The Physical Self Benefits of physical fitness in older individuals Enhances all areas of well-being: cognitive, physiological, and psychological functioning Cardiac reserve capacity - The work that the heart is able to perform beyond that required of it under ordinary circumstances Decreases in reserve capacity occur in late adulthood This means that their maximum heart rate is lower Ex. Even if a 60 year-old is in top shape, his/her maximum heart rated during exercise is still going to be lower than it was in his/her 20s The heart just cant beat as fast, meaning decreased reserve capacity Perception Nativist perspective Basically suggests that certain human abilities are innate (that we are born with them already in place) So if a parent believes their newborn already has the capacity to understand certain things (like judging distance, perceiving if something moving towards or away, understanding of language, etc.), this would reflect the nativist perspective Perception Speech perception Very young infants are sensitive to all speech/language sounds With age, we become more sensitive to sounds that are relevant in our own language and less sensitive to sounds that are irrelevant Ex. Young infants can detect differences in vowel sounds of different languages that sound the same to older children and adults But with age, we lose this ability as we become focused on learning our own language Perception Sensory adaptation - occurs when sensory receptors change their sensitivity to the stimulus Dark Like adaptation - adaptation to reduced light intensity going from a well lit area to a darker area Ex. When an elderly person turns off the light in their living room, and has more trouble finding their way to the bedroom in the dark than they used to when they were younger, this indicates slower dark adaptation ability Cognition Piaget’s concept of assimilation – when children use their current schemes to interpret the world This can lead to over generalizations of unfamiliar things Ex. An 18 month-old knows what fish are and has formed a scheme that fish have fins and swim around in the water The child goes to Sea World and sees a dolphin for the first time, and then says “Look at the fish!” The child applied the already formed “fish” schema to the interpretation of his environment Cognition Circular reactions – when babies stumble onto a new experience caused by the baby’s own motor activity Tertiary circular reactions – exploration of the properties of objects by acting on them in novel ways Emerge around 12-18 months of age Ex. A child is playing with blocks in a high chair, and begins throwing them on the ground one at a time to see how each one bounces Ex. A child shoves play-dough in his/her mouth, ears, and hair and then throws some on the ground just to see what happens Cognition Remember when we talked about how young children fail conservation tasks? After watching liquid being poured from a short, wide glass to a tall, skinny glass, they believe there is now more liquid If 2 rows of quarters have the same number of quarters, but one is stretched out longer, they believe there are more quarters in the longer row This happens because of centration – when children focus on one aspect of a situation (usually the most obvious) and ignore other important aspects Ex. The child is centered on the height of the liquid in the glass Ex. The child is centered on the length of the row of quarters Memory and Information Processing Memory strategies Rehearsal – repeating things over and over again Organization – grouping similar things together (chunking) Ex. Repeating a new address over and over again Ex. When trying to remember state capitals, grouping all state capitals in the same part of the country together Elaboration – creating a relationship, or shared meaning, between two or more pieces of information that do not belong to the same category Ex. When trying to remember someone’s name, you associate what that person was wearing when you met them with their name (“Mary was wearing a purple jacket) Elaboration can include any elaboration on, or expansion of the information to be remembered Memory and Information Processing Scripts for events include the sequence of events that are supposed to happen Children can have scripts for just about anything, going grocery shopping, eating out, visiting grandparents, packing to go on vacation, getting ready for bed, getting in the car, etc. Ex. An 11 year-old has a script for eating in a restaurant that includes going inside, sitting next to mom, telling mom what you want to eat, eating, then leaving Intelligence and Creativity Fluid intelligence – depends on basic information-processing skills, ability to detect relationships among visual stimuli, speed of analyzing information, and capacity of working memory Fluid intelligence declines early (processing speed!) starting in the 20s One of the ways it is tested is pattern recognition: ? What comes next? Crystallized intelligence – skills that depend on accumulated knowledge and experience, good judgment, and mastery of social conventions Gains over the life-span only declining in (very) late adulthood Tested by asking individuals socially and culturally relevant information Ex. What are the state capitols of Vermont and Mississippi? Ex. What is the difference between pride and pied? Intelligence and Creativity The Flynn effect – the name given to the sustained rise in intelligence test scores over the past several decades This is just a name for the phenomenon of rising IQ scores since IQ testing was invented IQ score facts to know: The fear of “stereotype threat” (i.e. fear of being judged on the basis of the negative stereotypes about the group you belong to) CAN help explain the lower scores of African Americans on intelligence tests Genetic factors CAN explain differences between IQ scores WITHIN racial groups but NOT BETWEEN racial groups Being exposed to the “culture of the tests” (i.e. the dominant social class) and quality schools CAN lead to increases in IQ scores An individual’s IQ CANNOT be accurately predicted simply on the basis of their race Language and Education Semantics – word meanings Underextension – vocabulary error in which a word is applied too narrowly, to a smaller number of objects and events than is appropriate Semantics problem ex. Mom says to Dad “Could you pass the salt dear?” 3 year-old says to Mom “But Mommy, Daddy isn’t a 4-legged brown animal!” Ex. Toddler only calls his stuffed dog toy “doggie” and doesn’t refer to his new puppy as “doggie” Overextension – vocabulary error in which a word is applied too broadly, to a wider collection of objects and events than is appropriate Ex. Toddler calls all vehicles (trucks, SUVs, trains, motorcycles, vans, etc.) as “car” Language and Education Achievement motivation – motivation to achieve goals, academic, social, financial, occupational In childhood achievement is motivated by factors such as parenting practices, peer relationships, and personal goals (which are age related) Ex. You don’t have the same goals in kindergarten as you do in in middle school and high school In adulthood, social contexts are more important in affecting achievement motivation than actual age Ex. Adults must be in a social context that gives them both the opportunity and the motivation to achieve new life goals Self and Personality Erikson vs. Freud Freud Psychosexual theory – emphasizes that how parents manage their child’s sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development Id, ego, and superego parts of personality Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages Erikson Psychosocial theory – emphasized that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills at each stage that make the individual an active, contributing member of society Emphasized the social factors that affect personality development more than Freud Believed that normal development must be understood in relation to each culture’s life situation Suggested that child rearing can be understood only in relation to the competencies valued and needed by an individual’s society Self and Personality Personality and Identity Identity moratorium – exploration without having reached commitment Considered healthy, experimenting and exploring alternatives before settling on a choice Identity achievement – commitment to values, beliefs, and goals following a period of exploration Considered healthy, committing to a path after a period of moratorium and exploring options Ex. After taking classes in psychology, biology, and history, you decide you want to pursue a career teaching history Identity foreclosure – commitment in the absence of exploration Considered unhealthy, settling on a life path without exploring options Ex. Trying out different majors and career choices before settling on an occupation Ex. Deciding to be a farmer or a lawyer or a politician just because your parents tell you to Identity diffusion – an apathetic state characterized by lack of both exploration and commitment Considered the most unhealthy, you are generally apathetic to exploration or settling on a life path and are not exploring options Ex. A 30 year-old is perfectly content living in his parents home and being unemployed Self and Personality Changes in personality over time Personality experiences the most changes from adolescence to early adulthood There are specific changes/shifts that occur during middle age and old age, personality generally stable over the later years Midlife crisis In spite of the stereotype of the middle aged adult, few report having a “midlife crisis” Research has shown that while adults do report some “turning points” during midlife, very few report experiencing a “midlife crisis” Gender Roles and Sexuality Gender typing – refers to any association of objects, activities, roles, or traits with one sex or the other in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes Gender typing occurs when parents or other social partners emphasize behavior, roles, activities etc. with one sex or the other Ex. Tommy has just come to realize that he his a little boy, over the next few years, his father will teach him about all the kinds of behaviors that are expected of boys, such as playing sports, hiding emotions, and driving trucks Gender Roles and Sexuality Differences in the treatment of boys and girls begin as soon as the child is born Reports from parents as early as a few hours after the birth of a child show that: Parents describe sons as “stronger,” “braver,” and more active than average Parents describe daughters as more “delicate,” “soft,” and “cuddly” than average infants Gender Roles and Sexuality The androgyny shift in middle adulthood Increase in “feminine” traits in men Increase in “masculine” traits in women Social Cognition and Moral Development Kohlberg’s stages of moral development Preconventional level – morality is externally controlled Conventional level – individuals continue to regard conformity to external social rules as important, but not for reasons of self interest They believe that actively maintaining the current social system ensure positive relationships and social order Ex. An individual decides not to steal a candy bar because if everyone resorted to stealing when they were hungry there would be no social order Postconventional level – individuals move beyond unquestioning support for their own society’s rules and laws Children accept the rules of authority figures and judge actions by their consequences Behaviors that result in punishment are viewed as bad and behaviors that result in rewards are viewed as good Ex. A child decides not to steal a candy bar for fear of being punished They define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies Ex. Stealing is viewed as wrong because it is taking something that doesn’t belong to you and that violates the owners personal rights A variety of factors are associated with advancement to higher stages of moral development, the most important of which being the development of perspective-taking skills Social Cognition and Moral Development Dodge’s social information-processing model – a person’s behavioral response to a situation occurs in a sequence of five steps 1) Encoding information – the way we selectively attend to and store social cues from a situation 2) Mental representations – made when the encoded cues are given a meaning and are interpreted 3) Response assessment – the mental representation evokes a behavioral response. 4) Response evaluation – the individual’s choice of whether or not to enact the accessed response Here the individual evaluates the interpersonal, intrapersonal, instrumental, and moral consequences of the accessed response 5) Enactment – takes place when an individual selects a response and transforms it into a behavior A person’s judgments about the behaviors, thoughts, and feelings of others and their limited response repertoire for dealing with adversities can lead to a reliance on aggression In other words, if individuals display maladaptive ways of processing information they will be more likely to interpret ambiguous situations as an attack to the self and, consequently, use violence as a means to resolve the conflict because they are unable to access an appropriate response. Thus, it can be said that maladaptive ways of processing information can increase violence. Ex. Dodges model would suggest that teenagers who commit violent, antisocial acts incorrectly interpret and process the social cues of others as being aggressive towards them Social Cognition and Moral Development Attachment styles The strange situation Assesses quality of attachment of a caregiver (usually mother) in 1-2 year-olds Takes the baby through 8 short episodes in which brief separations from and reunions with the parent occur When the parent leaves an unfamiliar adult sometimes enters the room Social Cognition and Moral Development Secure attachment Avoidant attachment Child seems unresponsive to the parent when she is present When parent leaves, the child is usually not upset and reacts to a stranger in much the same way as to the parent When parent returns, the child avoids her and are slow to greet her; when picked up they do not cling to the parent Resistant attachment Use parent as a secure base from which to explore the room When separated, the child may or may not cry, but if they do, it is because the parent is absent and they prefer the parent to the stranger When the parent returns, the child actively seeks contacts, and crying is immediately reduced Before the parent leaves, the child seeks closeness to her and does not explore around the room When the parent leaves, the child is usually distressed When the parent returns the child is usually clingy but also angry towards the parent When picked up by the parent may be resistant to affection and does not stop crying Disorganized/disoriented attachment Usually show little to no response when the parent leaves or when the stranger enters the room At reunion, the child shows confused, contradictory behaviors The child may look away while the parent is holding them or may approach the parent with little emotion or depressed emotion Most display a “dazed” facial expression Social Cognition and Moral Development Cultural variations in attachment Attachment patterns have to be interpreted differently in different cultures A secure attachment is best defined by cultural standards which can vary from country to country Ex. In Germany, parents value independence and encourage their infants to be nonclingy, thus their infants tend to show more avoidant attachment than American infants do Ex. In Japan, parents view infant dependency as a positive thing, reflective of their collectivist culture; thus, Japanese infants rarely show avoidant attachment and more frequently show resistant attachment Social Cognition and Moral Development Social theories of late adulthood Socioemotional selectivity theory – asserts that social interaction does not decline suddenly in late age, rather, that it reflects a continuing selectivity in personal relationships Thus, the shrinking social networks of older adults are by choice Elders just aren’t as willing to spend time with people that they don’t enjoy being around The Family Parenting styles are described by 3 consistent features: 1) acceptance and involvement; 2) control 3) autonomy granting Parenting styles Authoritative – the most successful approach, involves high acceptance and involvement, adaptive control techniques, and appropriate autonomy granting Authoritarian – low acceptance and involvement, high in coercive control, and low in autonomy granting Parents are cold and rejecting To exert control, the yell, command, criticize, and threaten (“Do it because I said so!”) Parents make decisions for the children and expect the child to accept their word unquestioningly Child resistance is met with force and punishment Permissive – warm and accepting but uninvolved, engage in little control, and, instead of gradually granting autonomy, allow children to make many of their own decisions at an age when they are not yet capable of doing to Rules are clear and are explained to the child Parents have a warm supportive relationship with the child but at the same time exercise firm, reasonable control Parents engage in gradual and appropriate autonomy granting Children can basically do whatever they want (eating meals, going to bed, watching TV, etc.) The “my little angel is just so perfect” parent… Uninvolved – low acceptance and involvement with little control and general indifference to issues of autonomy Parents are often emotionally detached and depressed, so overwhelmed by life stress that they have little time and energy for children The Family Effects of children on parents In general, marital satisfaction tends to decrease with each additional child for both mothers and fathers After children “leave the nest” and parents retire Marriages tend to become more equitable Due to the “androgyny shift” as well as to the participation of husbands in more household chores Sandwich generation or the “middle generation squeeze” – refers to the idea that middle-aged adults must care for multiple generations above and below them at the same time Middle-aged adults who are simultaneously caring for both older (their parents) and younger (their children) generations Developmental Psychopathology Autism New research suggests that unusual behaviors displayed by autistic children may result from: Small head size at birth Abnormally rapid and excessive head/brain growth during the first year after birth that results in improperly interconnected neurons Developmental Psychopathology In adolescence there is a heightened vulnerability for some forms of psychological disorders Increase vulnerability for depression, anxiety, eating disorders, etc. However, adults are still more likely to suffer from disorders Developmental Psychopathology Alzheimer’s disease – the most common form of dementia, in which structural and chemical brain deterioration is associated with gradual loss of many aspects of thought and behavior First sign of Alzheimer’s disease is typically trouble learning and remembering verbal material Ex. Forgetting names, problems interpreting and forming spoken and written language Death and Dying The Hayflick limit – the number of times that a cell can divide/double itself before it stops Suggests that, in old age, a person’s cells reach the limit and can no longer duplicate, as a result cell damage can no longer be repaired and bodily systems break down Death and Dying Bereavement – the experience of losing a loved one by death Parkes/Bowlby model of bereavement Includes 4 stages: Numbness – phase immediately following loss Yearning and protest – characterized by the grieving person longing or yearning for the deceased to return Feelings of yearning become less intense while periods of apathy and despair increase Reorganization – final phase, the grieving person begins to return to a new state of “normal” Many emotions are expressed during this time and may include weeping, anger, anxiety, and confusion Disorganization and despair – the grieving person now desires to withdraw and disengage from others and activities they regularly enjoyed The grieving person feels numb, which is a defense mechanism that allows them to survive emotionally Energy levels increase, weight loss experienced during grieving may be regained, and interest to return to activities of enjoyment returns and positive memories of the deceased take over This model suggests that a grieving adult is much like an infant experiencing separation anxiety