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Chapter 6
Consumer Perception
Dr. Franck Vigneron
CSUN-COBE
The registration of stimuli
by one of the five senses:
vision, hearing, taste, smell,
and touch
Perception
The process by which an
individual selects, organizes,
and interprets stimuli into a
meaningful and coherent
picture of the world.
Consumer
Learning
A process by which
individuals acquire the
purchase and consumption
knowledge and experience
that they apply to future
related behavior.
Stimulus
Any unit of input to any of
the senses. Sensory receptors
are the human organs that
receive sensory inputs.
Elements of Perception
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•
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Sensation
The absolute threshold
The differential threshold
Subliminal perception
Sensory
Receptors
The human organs (eyes,
ears, nose, mouth, skin) that
receive sensory inputs.
Absolute
Threshold
The lowest level at which an
individual can experience a
sensation.
Sensory
Adaptation
“Getting used to” certain
sensations; becoming
accommodated to a certain
level of stimulation.
This is a problem that causes
many advertisers to change their
advertising campaigns regularly.
•
Marketers try to increase sensory input in order to
cut through the daily clutter consumers experience
in the consumption of advertising.
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–
–
CLUTTER
Some increase sensory input in an effort to cut
through the advertising “clutter”.
Other advertisers try to attract attention by
decreasing sensory input. Some advertisers use •
silence (the absence of music or other audio
effects) to generate attention.
Some marketers seek unusual media in which to
place their advertisements in an effort to gain
attention.
•
Marketers try to increase sensory input in order to
cut through the daily clutter consumers experience
in the consumption of advertising.
–
Some increase sensory input in an effort to cut
through the advertising “clutter”.
– Other advertisers try to attract attention by
decreasing sensory input. Some advertisers use
Marketers try to increase sensory input insilence
order to
(the absence of music or other audio
cut through the daily clutter consumers experience
effects) to generate attention.
in the consumption of advertising. – Some marketers seek unusual media in which to
– Some increase sensory input in an effort
to cut
place
their advertisements in an effort to gain
through the advertising “clutter”.
attention.
– Other advertisers try to attract attention by
decreasing sensory input. Some advertisers use
silence (the absence of music or other audio
effects) to generate attention.
– Some marketers seek unusual media in which to
place their advertisements in an effort to gain
attention.
Differential
Threshold
The minimal difference that
can be detected between two
stimuli. Also known as the
j.n.d. (just noticeable
difference).
Weber’s Law
A theory concerning the
perceived differentiation
between similar stimuli of
varying intensities (i.e., the
stronger the initial stimulus,
the greater the additional
intensity needed for the
second stimulus to be
perceived as different).
Marketing Applications
of the JND
• Need to determine the relevant j.n.d. for their
products
– so that negative changes are not readily
discernible to the public
– so that product improvements are very apparent
to consumers
– Making the product improvement just equal to
the j.n.d. thus becomes the most efficient
decision that management can make.
– Retailers use the principle in reducing prices.
Markdowns must amount to at least twenty
percent to be noticed by shoppers.
Subliminal
Perception
Perception of very weak or
rapid stimuli received below
the level of conscious
awareness.
Is Subliminal Persuasion Effective?
• Extensive research has shown
no evidence that subliminal
advertising can cause behavior
changes
• Some evidence that subliminal
stimuli may influence affective
reactions
Aspects of Perception
Selection
Consumers have a
heightened awareness
of the stimuli that meet
their needs or interests.
Interpretation
Organization
Organize the stimuli they do
recognize according to widely
held psychological principles.
Give meaning to stimuli
subjectively in accordance with their
needs, expectations, and
experiences.
Some Marketing Variables Influencing
Consumer Perception
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•
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Nature of Product
Physical Attributes of Product
Package and Design
Brand Name
Advertisements & Commercials
Position of Ad
Editorial Environment
Intrinsic Cues
Physical characteristics of
the product (such as size,
color, flavor, or aroma) that
serve to influence the
consumer’s perceptions of
product quality.
Extrinsic Cues
Cues external to the product
(such as price, store image,
or brand image) that serve to
influence the consumer’s
perception of a product’s
quality.
Principles of Perceptual Organization
• Figure and ground
• Grouping
• Closure
– Zeigernik effect
{complete what they st…}
Distorting Influences
•
•
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1.
2.
3.
5.
6.
Physical Appearances “same as me”
Stereotypes
First Impressions
Jumping to Conclusions
Halo Effect (e.g., licensing)
Positioning
Establishing a specific image
for a brand in relation to
competing brands.
Reposition
Changing the way a product
is perceived by consumers in
relation to other brands or
product uses.
Positioning
Map
A map as designed by the
marketers as they would like
the brand to be perceived by
the consumers based on
product attributes of specific
brands.
Perceptual
Mapping
A research technique that
enables marketers to plot
graphically consumers’
perceptions concerning
product attributes of
specific brands.
Price/Quality
Relationship
The perception of price as an
indicator of product quality
(e.g., the higher the price,
the higher the perceived
quality of the product).
Perceived Quality of Products
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Cues
Reference
Price
Any price that a consumer
uses as a basis for
comparison in judging
another price.
Reference Prices
• External Reference Price
• Internal Reference Price
Chapter 7
Consumer Learning
Cognitive Learning Theory
Behavioral Learning Theory
A theory of learning based on
Mental Information
Processing, often in
response to Problem
Solving.
A theory of learning based on
Stimulus-Response
Theory, often in response to
Stimuli.
Not concern with PROCESS,
But with INPUTS &
OUTCOMES
Consumer
Learning
A process by which
individuals acquire the
purchase and consumption
knowledge and experience
that they apply to future
related behavior.
Elements of Learning Theories
•
•
•
•
Motivation
Cues
Response
Reinforcement
Behavioral Learning Theories
• Classical Conditioning
• Instrumental Conditioning
• Modeling or Observational Learning
Classical
Conditioning
A behavioral learning theory
according to which a
stimulus is paired with
another stimulus that elicits a
known response that serves
to produce the same
response when used alone.
Basic Concepts of Classical
Conditioning
• Repetition
• Stimulus Generalization
• Stimulus Discrimination
Stimulus Generalization and Marketing
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•
•
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Product Line, Form and Category Extensions
Family Branding
Licensing
Generalizing Usage Situations
Instrumental
(Operant)
Conditioning
A behavioral theory of
learning based on a trial-anderror process, with habits
forced as the result of
positive experiences
(reinforcement) resulting
from certain responses or
behaviors.
Instrumental Conditioning and
Marketing
• Customer Satisfaction (Reinforcement)
• Reinforcement Schedules
– Time: every time, nth time, or randomly
– Shaping (stimuli prior to buy)
• Loss leader or big discounts
• Massed versus Distributed Learning
– Concentrated or regular communication
Observational
Learning
A process by which
individuals observe the
behavior of others,
remember it, and imitate it.
Also known as modeling.
Behavioral Learning Theory
Cognitive Learning Theory
A theory of learning based on
Stimulus-Response
Theory, often in response to
Stimuli.
Not concern with PROCESS,
But with INPUTS &
OUTCOMES
A theory of learning based on
Mental Information
Processing, often in
response to Problem
Solving.
Information
Processing
A cognitive theory of human
learning patterned after
computer information
processing that focuses on
how information is stored in
human memory and how it is
retrieved.
Five-Stage Consumer Buyer Decision
Process
Problem
recognition
Information
search
Evaluation of
alternatives
Purchase
decision
Postpurchase
behavior
Buyer behavior
Involvement
Theory
A theory of consumer
learning which postulates
that consumers engage in a
range of information
processing activity from
extensive to limited problem
solving, depending on the
relevance of the purchase.
Brand Equity
The value inherent in a wellknown brand name.
Chapter 8
Consumer Attitude Formation
and Change
Attitudes
= PREDICTION
A learned predisposition to
behave in a consistently
favorable or unfavorable
manner with respect to a
given thing.
The Tricomponent Model
• Cognitive Component
– The knowledge and perceptions that are acquired by a
combination of direct experience with the attitude
object and related information from various sources.
• Affective Component
– A consumer’s emotions or feelings about a particular
product or brand.
• Conative Component
– The likelihood or tendency that an individual will
undertake a specific action or behave in a particular
way with regard to the attitude object
Multiattribute
Attitude
Models
Attitude models that
examine the composition of
consumer attitudes in terms
of selected product attributes
or beliefs.
Multiattribute Attitude
Models
• The attitude-toward-object model
– Attitude is function of evaluation of productspecific beliefs and evaluations
“What consumers will purchase is a function
how much they known, what they feel are the
important features for them, and their
awareness as to whether particular brands
possess (or lack) these valued attributes.”
Multiattribute Attitude
Models
• The attitude-toward-behavior model
– Is the attitude toward behaving or acting with respect to
an object, rather than the attitude toward the object itself.
It is a function of how strongly he or she believes that the
action will lead to a specific outcome (either favorable or
unfavorable).
• Theory-of-reasoned-action model
– A comprehensive, integrative model of attitudes
including tricomponent model looking at the
interrelationship among attitudes, intentions, and
behavior.
Theory of Reasoned Action
• Need to measure the subjective norms.
• Assessing a consumer's feelings as to what relevant
others (family, friends, roommates, co-workers) would
think of the action being contemplated.
• They accomplish this by assessing the normative
beliefs that the individual attributes to relevant others,
as well as the individual's motivation to comply with
each of the relevant others.
AttitudeToward-theAd Model
A model that proposes that a
consumer forms various
feelings (affects) and
judgments (cognitions) as
the result of exposure to an
advertisement, which, in
turn, affect the consumer’s
attitude toward the ad and
attitude toward the brand.
Attitude-Toward-the-Ad Models
• It appears that for a novel product (e.g.,
"contact lenses for pets"), the consumer's
attitude toward the ad has a stronger
impact on brand attitude and purchase
intention than for a familiar product (e.g.,
pet food).
Issues in Attitude Formation
• Sources of influence on attitude formation
• Formed through the consumer's direct experience in trying and
evaluating them.
• Strongly influenced by personal experience, the influence of
family and friends, direct marketing, and mass media.
• As we come in contact with others, especially family, close
friends, and admired individuals (e.g., a respected neighbour),
we form attitudes that influence our lives.
• Impact of Niche marketing also called micromarketing on
consumers versus mass media.
Issues in Attitude Formation
• Personality factors
– Individuals with a high need for cognition
(information) are likely to form positive attitudes in
response to ads that are rich in product-related
information.
– Consumers who are relatively low in need for
cognition (information) are more likely to form
positive attitudes to ads that feature attractive
models or well-known celebrities.
Four Basic Motivational Functions
• The Utilitarian Function
• The Ego-defensive
Function
• The Value-expressive
Function
• The Knowledge Function
Utilitarian
Function
A component of the
functional approach to
attitude-change theory that
suggests consumers hold
certain attitudes partly
because of the brand’s
utility.
!! Serve new utilitarian purposes
Ego-Defensive
Function
A component of the
functional approach to
attitude-change that suggests
that consumers want to
protect their self-concepts
from inner feelings of doubt.
!! Enhance their self-image
e.g., cosmetics
ValueExpressive
Function
A component of the
functional approach to
attitude-change theory that
suggests that attitudes
express consumers’ general
values, lifestyles, and
outlook.
!! Focus on reflecting their
orientation with products
Knowledge
Function
A component of the
functional approach to
attitude-change theory that
suggests that consumers
have a strong need to know
and understand the people
and things with which they
come into contact.
!! New info = better info
Altering Components of the
Multiattribute Model
• Changing the Relative
Evaluation of Attributes
– = “cross over” 1 P to another P
• Changing Brand Beliefs
– = more, bigger, better …
• Adding an Attribute
• = use of tech: active bifidus
• Changing the Overall Brand
Rating
– = info on best-selling brand
Elaboration
Likelihood
Model (ELM)
A theory that suggests that a
person’s level of
involvement during message
processing is a critical factor
in determining which route
to persuasion is likely to be
effective.
= different levels of motivation
and assessment skills
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
Once a consumer receives a message he or she begins to process it.
• The Central Route to Persuasion
– If information in a persuasive message is relevant
consumer will carefully attend to the content of the
message
• The Peripheral Route to Persuasion
– Taken when the person is not motivated to think about
arguments
Cognitive
Dissonance
Theory
Holds that discomfort or
dissonance occurs when a
consumer holds conflicting
thoughts about a belief or an
attitude object.
Attribution
Theory
A theory concerned with
how people assign causality
to events and form or alter
their attitudes as an outcome
of assessing their own or
other people’s behavior.
Defensive
Attribution
A theory that suggests
consumers are likely to
accept credit for successful
outcomes (internal
attribution) and to blame
other persons or products for
failure (external attribution).
Attribution
towards …
Others
Salesperson’s motives are in
the consumer’s best interests
Things
Who is responsible for the
success!!!
Me, Product or Bob
Chapter 9
Communication and
Consumer Behavior
The Marketing Communications
Mix (Promotion Mix)
Advertising
Personal Selling
Any Paid Form of
Nonpersonal Presentation by
an Identified Sponsor.
Personal Presentations by
a Firm’s Sales Force.
Sales Promotion
Short-term Incentives to
Encourage Sales.
Public Relations
Building Good Relations with
Various Publics by Obtaining
Favorable Publicity.
Direct Marketing
Direct Communications With
Individuals to Obtain an
Immediate Response.
Elements of the Communications
Process
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The Message Initiator (the Source)
The Sender
The Receiver
The Medium
The Message
The Target Audience (the Receivers)
Feedback - the Receiver’s Response
Figure 9.3 Comprehensive
Communication Model
Commercial Verbal vs. Nonverbal
Non-Profit
1-sided vs. 2-sided
Individual Factual vs. Emotional
Formal vs.
Informal
Messag
e
Sender
(Source)
Symbols
Pictures
Words
Images
Selective
Exposure
Individuals
Target Audience
Intermediary Audience
Unintended Audiences
Channel
(Medium
)
Receiver
(Consumer)
Mediated by:
Involvement
Mood
Experience
Personal Charac.
Decodes
Paid vs. Unpaid
Print, Broadcast, Electronic
Personal vs. Impersonal
Pretests to Ensure Message Will be Received
Posttests to Ensure Message Was Received
Feedback
Responds
Appropriately
?
No
Miscomprehends
?
No
Yes
Yes
Setting Communication Objectives
Informative Advertising
Persuasive Advertising
Inform Consumers or
Build Primary Demand
i.e CD Players
Build Selective Demand
i.e Sony CD Players
Advertising Objective
Specific Communication Task
Accomplished with a Specific
Target Audience
During a Specific Period of Time
Comparison Advertising
Reminder Advertising
Compares One Brand to
Another
i.e. Avis vs. Hertz
Keeps Consumers Thinking
About a Product
i.e. Coca-Cola
Persuasion
An Active Attempt to Change Consumers Attitudes.
(The Central Goal of Many Marketing Communications)
• Who Will Be Shown Promoting the Brand in the Ad? (Actor,
Actress, Singer, or Model)
• How should the message be constructed? (Comparative,
Humorous, Sexy, Elegant)
• What media should used to transmit message? (Print Ad,
Commercial, Billboard, Direct Mail)
• What characteristics of the target market might influence the ad’s
acceptance?
Push and Pull Strategies
Push Strategy
Producer
Wholesalers
Retailers
Customers
Pull Strategy
Producer
Wholesalers
Retailers
Customers
Retailers
Customers
Push/Pull Strategies
Producer
Wholesalers
Advertising and Promotion
Distribution Strategies
Barriers to Communication
• Selective Perception
• Psychological Noise
The idea that both positive
and negative credibility
effects tend to disappear
after a period of time.
Sleeper Effect
Approx. 6 weeks
Decay is + for association
source and message than
message itself
Issues in Message Presentation
• Message Framing (+/-)
– Self-image, involvement, new= - & argument/ old market = + & emotion
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One-side Versus Two-sided Messages
Comparative Advertising
Order Effects
Repetition
Advertising Appeals
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Fear
Humor
Abrasive advertising
Sex in advertising
Audience participation
Sex Appeal
• Does sex sell?
• Counterproductive when picture is too provocative.
• Sex appeal works when product is related to sex.
Humor Advertising
• Increases the Likelihood of message acceptance.
• Effective When the Brand is Clearly Identified.
• Tricky! What is Funny to one person may be offensive to
the next.
Overview of Copy Strategy
• Nature
– Marketing Issues to solve (e.g., awareness, STP)
• Objectives of Communication
– Define targets
– Precise the expected changes of attitude or
behavior
• Define the psychological incentives
– Motivation and ability
• Creative
– Style, execution
– Theme: cognitive links, semantic value
Chapter 10
Reference Groups and Family
Influences
Reference
Group
A person or group that
serves as a point of
comparison (or reference)
for an individual in the
formation of either general
or specific values, attitudes,
or behavior.
= frames of reference
What is a Group?
• Two or more people who interact to accomplish
either individual or mutual goals
• A membership group is one to which a person either
belongs or would qualify for membership
• A symbolic group is one in which an individual is not
likely to receive membership despite acting like a
member
Major
Consumer
Reference
Groups
Factors That Affect Reference Group
Influence
• Information and experience
• Credibility, attractiveness, and power of the
reference group
• Conspicuousness of the product
Factors Encouraging Conformity:
A Reference Group Must ...
• Inform or make the individual aware of a specific
product or brand
• Provide the individual with the opportunity to compare
his or her own thinking with the attitudes and behavior
of the group
• Influence the individual to adopt attitudes and behavior
that are consistent with the norms of the group
• Legitimize the decision to use the same products as the
group
Broad Categories of Reference Groups
• Normative Reference Groups
– Based on General values: eg., family
• Comparative Reference Groups
– Based on Specific values: eg., neighboors
Selected Consumer-Related Reference
Groups
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Friendship groups
Shopping groups
Work groups
Virtual groups or
communities
• Consumer-action groups
Reference Group Appeals
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Celebrities
The expert
The “common man”
The executive and employee
spokesperson
• Trade or spokes-characters
Consumer
Socialization
The process by which
children acquire the skills,
knowledge, and attitudes
necessary to function as
consumers.
Dynamics of Husband-Wife Decision
Making
• Husband-Dominated
• Wife-Dominated
• Joint
– Equal
– Syncratic
• Autonomic
– Solitary
– Unilateral
Family-Cycle Stages
Young
Single
Married without
children
Married with
children
Divorced with
children
Middle-Aged
Single
Married without
children
Married with children
Married without
dependent children
Divorced without
children
Divorced with children
Divorced without
dependent children
Sources: Adapted from Patrick E. Murphy and William A. Staples, “A Modernized
Family Life Cycle,” Journal of Consumer Research, June 1979, p. 16, copyright Journal
of Consumer Research, Inc., 1980. Also see Leon G. Schiffman and Leslie Lazar
Kanuk, Consumer behavior (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994), pp.. 361-70.
Older
Older married
Older unmarried
Chapter 11
Social Class and Consumer
Behavior
Social Class
The division of members of
a society into a hierarchy of
distinct status classes, so that
members of each class have
either higher or lower status
than members of other
classes
Social Class and Social Status
• Social status is usually defined in terms of one
or more of the following socioeconomic
variables:
– Family Income
– Occupational Status
– Educational Attainment
The Measurement of Social Class
• Subjective Measures
• Reputational Measures
• Objective Measures
Subjective
Measures
In the subjective approach to
measuring social class,
individuals are asked to
estimate their own socialclass positions.
Reputational
Measures
The reputational approach
requires selected community
informants to make initial
judgments concerning the
social-class membership of
others within the community.
Objective
Measures of
Social Class
A method of measuring
social class whereby
individuals are asked
specific socioeconomic
questions concerning
themselves or their families
On the basis of their
answers, people are placed
within specific social-class
groupings.
Objective Measures
• Single-variable indexes
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–
–
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Occupation
Education
Income
Other Variables
• Composite-variable indexes
– Index of Status Characteristics
– Socioeconomic Status Score
SingleVariable
Index
The use of a single
socioeconomic variable
(such as income) to estimate
an individual’s relative
social class.
Chapin’s
Social Status
Scale
A social class rating scheme
that focuses on the presence
or absence of certain items
of furniture and accessories
in the home.
CompositeVariable
Index
An index that combines a
number of socioeconomic
variables (such as education,
income, occupation) to form
one overall measure of social
class standing.
Socioeconomic
Status Score
(SES)
A multivariable social class
measure used by the United
States Bureau of the Census
that combines occupational
status, family income, and
educational attainment into a
single measure of social
class standing.
Geodemographic
Clusters
A composite segmentation
strategy that uses both
geographic variables (zip
codes, neighborhoods, or
blocks) and demographic
variables (e.g., income,
occupation, value of
residence) to identify target
markets.
Consumer Behavior and Social Class
•
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Clothing, Fashion, and Shopping
The Pursuit of Leisure
Saving, Spending, and Credit
Social Class and Communication