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Chapter 6: Learning Learning Learning: A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes Habituation: Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus Learning Mere exposure effect: Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed Behavioral learning: Forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses (classical and operant conditioning) What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain? Classical conditioning: basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response Ivan Pavlov The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Neutral stimulus: Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning Acquisition: Initial learning stage in classical conditioning; conditioned response becomes elicited by the conditioned stimulus Classical Diagram (UCS) (UCR) (NS) + (UCS) (UCR) (CS) (CR) Pavlov’s Dogs (UCS) meat (UCR) salivate (NS) bell + (UCS) meat (UCR) salivate (CS) bell (CR) salivate http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/pavlov/ The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned (automatic) response The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned (learned) response The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus Pavlov’s Dogs Applications of Classical Conditioning Taste-aversion learning: Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness Practical Applications Tigers in India Coyotes and sheep Desensitization and phobias Counterconditioning Systematic desensitization Aversive conditioning – breaking habits Scapegoat stimuli – chemotherapy Classical Conditioning: Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus generalization involves giving a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the CS Stimulus discrimination involves responding to one stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar Classical Conditioning Extinction: Diminishing of a conditioned response; when the CS no longer signals an impending UCS Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of a CR, after a rest period, in response to the CS. How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior (such as rewards and punishments) influence the chance that our behavior will occur again How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? Law of Effect: if a response made in the presence of a stimulus is followed by satisfaction, then that response is more likely to occur the next time the stimulus is encountered (Thorndike) Trial-and-error learning: gradually discover the correct response by attempting many behaviors and noting which ones produce the desired consequences Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism B.F. Skinner believed that the most powerful influences on behavior are its consequences Response(behavior) Stimulus(consequence) The Power of Reinforcement Reinforcement: increases the probability of a response to happen again Positive reinforcer: Stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again Negative reinforcer: Removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again Term often misused in media/life Confused with punishment The Power of Reinforcement Primary reinforcers: Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism • Secondary reinforcers: Acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (ex. money/tokens) • Also called conditioned reinforcers Contingencies of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced Easiest to teach new behavior, more prone to extinction Shaping – rewarding for behavior towards end goal Partial reinforcement: Reinforcement schedule in which some correct responses are reinforced AKA - intermittent reinforcement Most resistant to extinction Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a set number of responses factory workers getting paid after every 10 products are completed Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a different number of responses slot machine pay-offs Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a set amount of time, regardless of number of responses weekly or monthly paychecks Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a different amount of time, regardless of number of responses random visits from the boss who delivers praise Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio schedules: Provide reward after a certain number of responses Interval schedules: Provide reward after a certain time interval More Operant Conditioning Principles Token Economy Premack principle Types of Punishment Punishment: An aversive stimulus which decreases the strength of the response it follows Positive punishment: The application of an aversive (bad) stimulus after a response Negative punishment (omission training): The removal of an appetitive (good) stimulus after a response Four Kinds of Consequences Increase Behavior Decrease Behavior Positive (Add) Positive Reinforcement Positive Punishment Negative (Remove) Negative Reinforcement Omission Training The Use and Abuse of Punishment Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed Often produces side effects (fear, aggression) Often suppresses undesirable behavior, but doesn’t get rid of it Aggressive and abusive Ineffective if not given immediately Doesn’t teach what is right When does punishment work? Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared Classical conditioning involves the association of two stimuli (UCS + CS) before the response or behavior (SR) Operant conditioning involves a reinforcing (reward) or punishing stimulus after a response or behavior (RS) How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? Insight learning: Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of existing perceptions Understanding of problem as a whole Learning to learn – previous experiences in problem solving are applied to new ones in a way that makes their solution seem instantaneous. Cognitive maps: A mental representation of physical space (Tolman) Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism Social-Learning Theory Observational learning: Form of cognitive learning in which one learns how to perform new behaviors by watching others Albert Bandura Modeling/Imitation Brain Mechanisms and Learning Long-term potentiation: Biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells; believed to be the neural basis of learning Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Response Consequence Loud Noise Press Lever Loud Noise Removed Press Lever Loud Noise Applied Punishment No Noise