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Transcript
Table of Contents Exit What is Social Psychology? Social Psychology: Scientific study of how individuals behave, think, and feel in social situations; how people act in the presence (actual or implied) of others Culture: Ongoing pattern of life that is passed from one generation to another Table of Contents Exit Social Roles Social Role: Patterns of behavior expected of people in various social positions (e.g. daughter, mother, teacher, President) Ascribed Role: Assigned to a person or not under personal control (son, daughter) Achieved Role: Attained voluntarily or by special effort (parent, teacher, mayor, President) Role Conflict: When two or more roles make conflicting demands on behavior Table of Contents Exit Groups Group Structure: Network of roles, communication, pathways, and power in a group Group Cohesiveness: Degree of attraction among group members or their commitment to remaining in the group Cohesive groups work better together Status: Level of social power and importance Table of Contents Exit Group Dynamics In-groups – groups to which we belong, we tend to favor For example, I (as you know) am a democrat. I think democrats rock. And I think teachers are cool too! Out-groups – groups to which we do not belong, we tend to attribute negative qualities to out-groups I often think…grrr, what are those tea-partiers up to now. Table of Contents Exit Group Dynamics Group polarization – like minded people sharing ideas result in a more extreme position for every individual of the group Groupthink (Irving Janis) Groups make bad decisions, members suppress their reservations. You want maintain each other’s approval, even at the cost of critical thinking, not wanting to “rock the boat” causes members to disregard suggestions of discontent or disagreement. We passively comply with the consensus. Bay of Pigs Invasion under Kennedy great example Student Council decisions: like dance themes or events they host Exit Table of Contents Group Dynamics Group Sanctions: Rewards and punishments administered by groups to enforce conformity ( laughter, staring) Unanimity: Unanimous agreement (having at least one person in your corner can greatly reduce your urge to conform, and secure your opposition/ Jury room) Table of Contents Exit Group Dynamics Social loafing – the tendency of individuals to put less effort into group projects than when they are individually accountable Hello, remember your last group project in class! Social facilitation – improved performance of welllearned tasks in front of others A coach’s dream Social impairment - decreased performance of a welllearned task in front of others A coach’s nightmare Table of Contents Exit Norms & Groups Behavior Norm: Accepted, but usually unspoken, standard of appropriate behavior The functioning of any group is greatly affected by its norms. Does the amount of trash already discarded in an area affect the likelihood that people will add to the litter? Table of Contents Exit Fig. 20.1 Results of an experiment on norms concerning littering. The prior existence of litter in a public setting implies that littering is acceptable. This encourages others to “trash” the area. (From Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990.) Littering Anyone? Seeing others had littered implied a lax norm about whether littering was acceptable The cleaner the public is kept, the less it will need cleaned Cialdini, Reno, & Kallgren, 1990 Table of Contents Exit Personal Space Personal Space -Area surrounding the body that is defined as private and is subject to personal control Proxemics: Systematic study of human use of personal space, especially in social settings Table of Contents Exit Spatial Norms 1. Intimate Distance: Most private space immediately surrounding the body; 18 inches from the skin. Reserved for special people or special circumstances 2. Personal Distance: Maintained in interactions with friends. 18 inches to 4 feet from body; arm’s length 3. Social Distance: Impersonal business & casual interaction takes place; 4 to 12 feet 4. Public Distance: Formal interactions take place; 12 feet or more /for meetings and speeches Table of Contents Exit Fig. 20.2 Typical spatial zones (in feet) for face-to-face interactions in North America. Often, we must stand within intimate distance of others in crowds, buses, subways, elevators, and other public places. At such times, privacy is maintained by avoiding eye contact, by standing shoulder to shoulder or back to back, and by positioning a purse, bag, package, or coat as a barrier to spatial intrusions. Attitudes Attitudes – learned predispositions to respond favorably or unfavorably to certain people, objects, and event Table of Contents Exit Mere Exposure Effect Mere Exposure Effect - Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases our liking of them EX) Hear a new song on the radio, don’t initially like it. But a week later after hearing it over and over on the radio you love it! Walk into the supermarket, you are most likely to buy the brand of spaghetti sauce you have seen advertised the most Table of Contents Exit Mere Exposure Effect There mere exposure effect works for human faces as well and promotes fondness for the people with whom we spend time Two researchers (Moreland & Beach) demonstrated the mere exposure effect by enrolling 4 women, all whom were judged equally attractive, in 1 200-student college class. First never attended class Second went 5 times Third 10 times Fourth attended 15 classes After the course ended, students judged who they felt was most attractive Table of Contents Exit Mere Exposure Effect The students judged the woman who had attended most often as the most attractive Why? Our ancestors benefited from the mere exposure effect. Familiar faces were less likely to be dangerous or threatening than unfamiliar faces. Some researchers believe we are born with a tendency to bond with those who are familiar to us, and to be leery of those we don’t know. (evolutionary instinct, if we have been around them and they have posed no threat, we like or trust them more) Table of Contents Exit Persuasive Messages, Attitudes and Change Elaboration likelihood model (ELM) – attitudinal change through two possible routes Central route of persuasion – relatively stable change in attitude by carefully scrutinizing facts, statistics, and other information Peripheral route – pairs superficial positive factors (prof athletes, supermodels & celebrities) with an argument leading to a less stable change in attitude Proactive works, Adam Levine uses it and he is hot! I should use Proactive too. Table of Contents Exit Persuasive Messages, Attitudes and Change Informational social influence –our willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality, especially under conditions of uncertainty “Well, that is what she said” Normative social influence – going along with the decisions of the group in order to gain its social approval “don’t rock the boat” Table of Contents Exit Social Perception- Attribution Theory Attribution Theory: a way to understand how people explain other’s behavior Social cognition – the way we gather, use, and interpret information about the social world Just-world phenomenon – tendency to believe in fairness, that people get what they deserve Table of Contents Exit More Attribution Concepts Situational Factors: environmental stimuli (factors) that affect a person’s behavior Like knowing someone is watching you Your behavior at Grandma’s vs. at your home Dispositional factors – individual personality characteristics that affect a person’s behavior Table of Contents Exit More Attribution Concepts Fundamental Attribution Error Tendency to attribute behavior of others to internal, personal causes (personality, motives, and traits). Ignoring any external or situational causes Actor-observer bias - Tendency to attribute OUR behavior to external causes (situations & circumstances) while attributing OTHERS’ to individual personality characteristics (dispositional) Table of Contents Exit Affiliation- The need to affiliationCome Together Need to Affiliate: Desire to associate with other people; appears to be a basic human trait Social Comparison: Making judgments about ourselves by comparing ourselves to others. E.g. comparing our feelings and abilities to those of other people Table of Contents Exit Social Comparison Downward Comparison: Comparing yourself with someone who ranks lower than you on some area (e.g. money, attractiveness, grade on a quiz) An in instant self-esteem booster, “mean girl” style OMG, her dress is sooo ugly! Upward Comparison: Comparing ourselves to someone who ranks higher than we do on some area; may be used for self-improvement (something we strive for) Gosh, if I could just get a 33 like___(insert name)______ on the ACT Table of Contents Exit Interpersonal Attraction Interpersonal Attraction –affinity to another person Physical Proximity: Physical nearness to another person in terms of housing, school, work, and so on Physical Attractiveness: Person’s degree of physical beauty as defined by his or her culture Research suggests we assume that attractive people are likable, intelligent, warm, witty, mentally healthy, greater job competence, and socially skilled (feingold 1992) Table of Contents Exit Interpersonal Attraction Halo Effect: Tendency to generalize a (often single or few) favorable impression to unrelated personal characteristics, ignore the bad and focus on the one/few good thing The explanation for why you and all your friends think your best friends boyfriend is s jerk. But she doesn’t see it. She thinks he is amazing. Table of Contents Exit Halo Effect Video Table of Contents Exit Interpersonal Attraction (cont.) Similarity: Extent to which two people are alike in terms of age, education, attitudes, and so on Similar people are attracted to each other Homogamy: Tendency to marry someone who is like us in almost every way Table of Contents Exit Attraction Psychological research: The conventional wisdom that opposites attract is FALSE!!! We are drawn to people who are like us: they share our attitudes, beliefs, interests, and backgrounds Proximity (nearness) & Mere exposure effect matter too Reciprocal liking- the more someone likes you, the more you will like them Self- disclosure - when we share personal information with someone, it is likely they will reciprocate. Many close friendships are built on the foundation of self disclosure. Meeting someone on an online dating website…If you self-disclose a lot before you even meet, odds are you will date awhile Table of Contents Exit Selecting a Mate- Reflections in a Social Mirror Page 657 Table of Contents Exit Self-Disclosure Self-Disclosure - Should be used cautiously and sparingly when you are the therapist performing therapy May lead to countertransference in therapy Reciprocity: moderate self-disclosure leads to Return of sharing private thoughts in kind Overdisclosure: Self-disclosure that exceeds what is appropriate for a relationship or social situation Table of Contents Exit Gendered Friendships Page 658 Table of Contents Exit Social Exchange Theory Social Exchange – transfer of attention, information, affection, favors between two people Social Exchange Theory: Rewards must exceed costs for relationships to endure; we unconsciously weigh social rewards and costs Comparison Level: Personal standard used to evaluate social rewards and costs in a social exchange/ individual and based on one’s history Relationship needs to be profitable enough to maintain it Table of Contents Exit Love and Attachment Romantic Love: Marked by high levels of interpersonal attraction, sexual desire, and heightened arousal Liking: Relationship based on affection without passion and commitments Secure Attachment: Stable and positive emotional bond Mutual Absorption: When two lovers almost always attend only to each other Avoidant Attachment: Fear of intimacy and a tendency to resist commitment to others Ambivalent Attachment: Mixed emotions about relationships; conflicting feelings of affection, anger and emotional turmoil Table of Contents Exit Evolution and Mate Selection Evolutionary Psychology – the study of the evolutionary origins of human behavior patterns Human evolution explains contemporary dating practices differences among genders Let us read: Evolution and Mate Selection, pg. 660 Table of Contents Exit Social Influence Social Influence - Changes in a person’s behavior induced by the actions of another person Someone else influences your decision: husband, wife, mother, peer, etc. Peer pressure: Rudy is swayed by Fanny to go see “The Hunger Games” when he really wanted to see “The Avengers” Table of Contents Exit Conformity Conformity - Bringing one’s behavior into agreement with norms or the behavior of others Solomon Asch’s Experiment – Gestalt Psych. In Asch's experiments, students were told that they were participating in a 'vision test.' Unbeknownst to the subject, the other participants in the experiment were all confederates, or assistants of the experimenter. At first, the confederates answered the questions correctly, but eventually began providing incorrect answers. Table of Contents Exit Fig. 20.5 Stimuli used in Solomon Asch’s conformity experiments. Do you think of yourself as a conformist or a non-conformist? Nearly 75 percent of the participants in the conformity experiments went along with the rest of the group at least one time. After combining the trials, the results indicated that participants conformed to the incorrect group answer approximately one-third of the time. Remember: Normative social influence – going along with the decisions of the group in order to gain its social approval “don’t rock the boat” Table of Contents Exit Bottom “Line” of the Asch Study These results suggest that conformity can be influenced both by a need to fit in and a belief that other people are smarter or better informed. Given the level of conformity seen in Asch's experiments, conformity can be even stronger in real-life situations where stimuli are more ambiguous or more difficult to judge. Table of Contents Exit Social Power Social Power: Capacity to control, alter or influence the behavior of another person Reward Power: Rewarding a person for complying with desired behavior, parents & teacher Coercive Power: Based on ability to punish a person for failure to comply, a bully Table of Contents Exit More Power Concepts Legitimate Power: Accepting a person as an agent of an established social order, cardinal or deputy Referent Power: Respect for, or identification with, a person or a group, grandparents & WWII vets Expert Power: Based on possession of knowledge or expertise, a doctor or attorney Table of Contents Exit Milgram’s Study If you were obeying orders, just how far would you go? Milgram started his experiments in 1961, shortly after the trial of the World War II criminal Adolph Eichmann had begun. Eichmann’s defense that he was simply following instructions when he ordered the deaths of millions of Jews roused Milgram’s interest. Table of Contents Exit Stanley Milgram "The social psychology of this century reveals a major lesson: often it is not so much the kind of person a man is as the kind of situation in which he finds himself that determines how he will act.” Table of Contents Exit Obedience (Milgram) Obedience – going along with the demands of an authority Would you shock a man with a known heart condition who is screaming and asking to be released? Milgram’s Famous Shock Study at Yale the man with a heart condition was the “student”, an accomplice/ actor The “teacher” was a real volunteer. The goal was to teach the learner word pairs. Every time the “student” missed and answer the teacher was supposed to deliver an electric shock Table of Contents Exit The Set-Up 1961 The participants in the Milgram experiment were 40 men recruited using newspaper ads. In exchange for their participation, each person was paid $4.50. Milgram developed an intimidating shock generator, with shock levels starting at 30 volts and increasing in 15-volt increments all the way up to 450 volts. The many switches were labeled with terms including "slight shock," "moderate shock" and "danger: severe shock." The final two switches were labeled simply with an ominous "XXX." Table of Contents Exit Would you? Most participants asked the experimenter whether they should continue. The experimenter issued a series of commands to prod the participant along: "Please continue." "The experiment requires that you continue." "It is absolutely essential that you continue." "You have no other choice, you must go on." Table of Contents Exit http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= eTX42lVDwA4 © Stanley Milgram, The Pennsylvania State University Fig. 20.6 Scenes from Stanley Milgram’s study of obedience: the “shock generator,” strapping a “learner” into his chair, and a “teacher”being told to administer a severe shock to the learner. Results Of the 40 participants in the study, 26 delivered the maximum shocks while 14 stopped before reaching the highest levels. It is important to note that many of the subjects became extremely agitated, distraught and angry at the experimenter. Yet they continued to follow orders all the way to the end. Table of Contents Exit Milgram’s “Shocking” Results The “student” screamed and provided no further answers once 300 volts (“Severe Shock”) was reached 65% of subjects obeyed by going all the way to 450 volts on the “shock machine” even though the learner eventually could not answer any more questions Table of Contents Exit a number of situational factors Explaining such high levels of obedience: The physical presence of an authority figure dramatically increased compliance, he later replicated the study several times altering related variables The fact that the study was sponsored by Yale (a trusted and authoritative academic institution) led many participants to believe that the experiment must be safe. The selection of teacher and learner status seemed random. Participants assumed that the experimenter was a competent expert. (“expert power”) The shocks were said to be painful, not dangerous. Table of Contents Exit APA not thrilled Because of concerns about the amount of anxiety experienced by many of the participants, all subjects were debriefed at the end of the experiment to explain the procedures and the use of deception. Many critics of the study have argued that many of the participants were still confused about the exact nature of the experiment. Milgram later surveyed the participants and found that 84% were glad to have participated, while only 1% regretted their involvement. HOW WOULD YOU FEEL AFTER, IF YOU WERE ONE Table of Contents OF THE 40 SUBJECTS? Exit Fig. 20.7 Results of Milgram’s obedience experiment. Only a minority of subjects refused to provide shocks, even at the most extreme intensities. The first substantial drop in obedience occurred at the 300-volt level (Milgram, 1963). Fig. 20.8 Physical distance from the “learner” had a significant effect on the percentage of subjects obeying orders. Table of Contents Exit Milgram Experiment Video Table of Contents Exit Bystander Intervention Kitty Genovese- Bystander effect (Darley & Latane) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BdpdUbW8vbw The more people that witness a crime, the less likely an individual will take action to help or intervene (we assume someone else will, no one person assumes responsibility) = diffusion of responsibility Related to social-loafing – when you are not individually accountable, you naturally put in less effort Table of Contents Exit Compliance Strategies Compliance - Bending to the requests of one person who has little or no authority or social power Foot-in-the-Door Effect: A person who has agreed to a small request is more likely later to agree to a larger demand. (little to big) you ask for $1 first, but you need $5 so later you ask for $5 Once you get a foot in the door, then a sale is almost a sure thing Door-in-the-Face Technique: A person who has refused a major request will be more likely later on to comply with a smaller request ( big to little) Can I borrow $20? Then ask can I borrow $2 (you really just needed $2 the entire time) After the door has been slammed in your face (major request refused), person may be more likely to agree to a smaller request Reciprocity – giving a small gift makes others feel obligated to agree to a later request, used to solicit contributions The March of Dimes sends me address label and they Table of Contents hope I send them a sizable donation Exit Assertiveness Self-Assertion: Standing up for your rights by speaking out on your own behalf; direct, honest expression of feelings and desires Broken Record: Self-assertion technique that involves repeating a request until it is acknowledged Good way to be assertive without being aggressive The squeaky wheel gets oiled (most of the time) Table of Contents Exit Fig. 18.9 In an experiment done at an airport, a smoker intentionally sat or stood near non-smokers. Only 9 percent of the non-smokers asked the smoker to stop smoking, even when no-smoking signs were clearly visible nearby (Gibson & Werner, 1994). ©Michael Newman/PhotoEdit Aggression Aggression - The intention to do harm others 2 Types: Instrumental aggression – to achieve a goal While playing soccer you kick an opponent, in attempt to steal the ball and win the game Hostile aggression – to inflict pain upon someone else Punching your sister, to ,well, punch your sister Table of Contents Exit