Download Theories on Origin and Change

Theories
on Origin and Change
© Lisa Michalek
Change Over Time
Most scientists agree that organisms have changed
over a long period of time
– from simple to complex.
Scientists have a good understanding of how life first
began & how evolutionary changes occurred.
To explain these events, scientists have proposed
various theories.
Some theories have been totally rejected because of
lack of supporting evidence.
Other theories have been modified (changed) based
on new evidence.
Spontaneous Generation
An Early attempt to explain the origin of life.
The concept that living things come from
nonliving things.
People believed,
that toads came
from mud, flies
came from the
rotting bodies of
animals, and mice
came from cheese.
Spontaneous Generation
This theory was widely
accepted until the late
1800’s when it was
disproved by
Louis Pasteur.
Today, we know that
life comes from other
living things although
some scientists believe
the first cell must have
come from nonliving
materials.
Theory of Use and Disuse
In the early 1800’s Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
presented this theory.
He thought that organisms were
able to develop new structures
because they needed the structures.
He also believed that the size of
an organ is determined by how
much the organ is used.
According to this theory, ballet dancers have big, strong
muscles because they uses their muscles a lot.
When a dancer stops using a certain muscle, the muscle
gets smaller and weaker.

Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
Lamarck also stated that the useful traits an
individual developed during its lifetime can be
passed on to its offspring.
An acquired characteristic is a trait that is
produced during an individual’s lifetime.

Lamarck would have said that the children of
dancers would inherit strong muscles.
Lamarck’s theories were widely accepted for a
long time.
As time went on, scientists began to challenge
his theories by showing that there was no data
to support his hypothesis.
Disproving
Lamarck’s Theory
The idea that acquired traits
could be inherited was
officially disproved in the
late 1800s by the experiments
of August Weismann.
Weismann cut off the tails from mice.
 He then mated the tailless mice.
 He did this for many generations.
 The offspring of the tailless mice were
always born with normal length tails.
 This experiment proved that acquired
traits are not inherited by offspring.

Darwin’s Theory
In the 1850’s the
theory of natural selection was
proposed by Charles Darwin.
In his travels he noticed that a
certain species in one geographic
area was different from the same
species in another area.
His theory of evolution was developed to
explain the gradual change in species.
Natural Selection
Nature (environment) acts as the selecting
agent of an organism’s traits.
Darwin believed organisms better adapted to
the environment survive and reproduce more
successfully than organisms not as well
adapted.
Natural Selection suggests that traits that help
an organism survive in a changing environment
are passed on to the next generation.
Lamarck vs. Darwin
Alfred Wallace
Although Darwin is given
credit for the theory of
natural selection, another
scientist, Alfred Wallace,
proposed a theory of
evolution that was quite
similar to Darwin’s Theory.
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
Overproduction: A population generally produces
more offspring than can survive in the environment.
1.
•
For example: a fish must lay millions of eggs to reproduce
a small number of new fish.
Competition: Because of overproduction, there is
competition or a “struggle for survival,” between
organisms for space, food, water, light, minerals, or
other limited resources.
Variations: Members of a population show
variations (differences in traits) that make certain
individuals better adapted to survive.
2.
3.
•
Differences in structure, size, and color are examples of
variations.
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
4.
5.
Natural Selection: Since some variations are
more helpful than others, there is a natural
selection against organisms that cannot
adapt. Organisms that cannot adapt, die.
Survival of the Fittest: Applies to those
individuals that have variations that enable
them to live and reproduce.
• In a woodland environment, brown fur color
would be a helpful variation and white fur
color would not be helpful.
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
6.
7.
Inheritance of Variations: Organisms with
helpful variations are more likely to survive
and to reproduce, passing these variations to
their offspring.
Evolution of New Species: Over long
periods of time, variations accumulate in a
population. Eventually, there are so many
variations that the population becomes a new
species.
Mutation Theory
In 1901, Hugo DeVries,
suggested that inherited
mutations caused variations.
He believed that mutations
(changes in genetic material)
occurred randomly and those
mutations that were favorable
were inherited by offspring.
DeVries based his theory on his
reproduction experiments with
the evening primrose plant.
Modern Theory of Natural Selection
The genes of inherited variations that give an
organism a better chance for survival tend to be
passed on from parents to offspring.
These favorable genes tend to increase in numbers
within a population.
Genes for traits with low survival value decrease in
numbers from generation to generation.
If the environment changes, genes that previously
were neutral or had low survival value may become
favorable and increase in numbers.
Geologic Time
The oldest living thing, a bacteria-like
organism,
is estimated to be 3.4 billion years old.
Each time period is identified by its dominant
(common) animal and plant life.
Eras- A time chart that divides the number of
years into smaller time units.

Cenozoic, Mesozoic, Paleozoic, and Precambrian
Eras are divided into Periods.
Periods are divided in Epochs.
4 Major Eras
Cenozoic Era
Most recent era, began approx. 60 million
years ago
 Age of Mammals (mammals became the
dominant form of animal life.)
 Flowering plants were the dominant form
of plant life.
 Man appeared late in this era.

4 Major Eras
Mesozoic Era
Began over 200 million years ago.
 Known as the Age of Reptiles.
 Reptiles, such as dinosaurs were the
dominant animal life.
 The first birds were thought to appear during this
era.
 Fern forests were the dominant plants.

4 Major Eras
Paleozoic Era
Longest era, lasting over 400 million years.
 Divided into:

Age of Amphibians
 Age of Fishes
 Age of Invertebrates

The first land plants developed during this time
and fern trees were widespread along with
swampy forests.
 Modern insects also appeared, amphibians, giant
insects, trilobites, crustaceans and fishes were

4 Major Eras
Precambrian Era
Oldest time period, over 4.6 billion years ago.
 Simple multicellular organisms, such as
sponges and worms, were numerous.
 The first protists (one-celled organisms)
appeared during this time and
probably bacteria
and algae were dominant.

Fossil Evidence
Fossils – the remains or traces of organisms
that once lived.
Paleontologists – Scientists who study
fossils.
The study of fossils in the earth provides
evidence to support the idea that life changed
over time from simple to complex.
Fossil distribution shows that lifeBecoming
begana in
the
Fossil
sea and then moved to land.
Fossil Evidence
It also provides evidence for the time of origin
(beginning) of various forms of life.
Fossils help scientists understand how
climates and land surfaces have changed.
By the process of radioactive dating,
scientists determine the age of the earth’s
rocks and its fossils.
Fossil Evidence
In Sedimentary Rock
Many Fossils are found in sedimentary rock.
Where the crust of earth is undisturbed, the oldest rock layers
lie under the younger layers.
Sedimentary rock is formed from layers
of slowly deposited sediments.



Rock particles
Silt
Mud
After long periods of time and great
amounts of heat and pressure, sediments
harden into rock forming visible layers.
Fossilization
Amber - A yellowish-brown
sap secreted by pine trees.
Tar
Ice
Mold - An indentation in
rock shaped like an
organism.
Fossilization
Cast - The decayed
organism forms a
mold, and the mold
becomes filled with
a different
substance.
Petrification - The
tissues of the
organism are slowly
replaced by
Imprints –
Occur when a
print is made in a
soft sediment,
that later turns to
rock.
Skeletal Evidence
Comparative Anatomy
The science that studies the structures (anatomy)
of plants and animals.
 When scientists compare skeletal structures of
different vertebrates, they see a similar basic
structures.
 This observation shows that organisms with
similar bone structures may have evolved from a
common ancestor population.

Example - Evolution of Eye
Skeletal Evidence
Organs or structural
parts that seem to have
a common evolutionary
origin are referred to as
homologous
structures.
Although homologous
structures are similar in
structure, they do not
always have the same
function.
Vestigial Structures
Parts of an animal’s body that are not used
These structures look like structures that are
fully developed and used by other animals.
Example: Human Appendix
Scientists think that perhaps some ancestor of
humans used their appendix and, as evolution
continued, humans stopped using this organ.
Other Examples: human ear muscles, and the
leg bones of the python and porpoise
Comparing Cell Structure
Cells and cell organelles are basically alike
from one group of organisms to another.
For example, all cells have a nucleus, cell
membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes,
mitochondria, chromosomes, and other
organelles.
This is evidence that different kinds of living
things may share a common origin.
Comparing Embryos
Comparisons of early stages
of embryonic development
show the possibility of
common ancestry and
evolutionary relationships.
The science that studies the
structural similarities among
vertebrate embryos is called
comparative embryology.
Example - Embryos
Comparing Embryos
At early stages,
vertebrate embryos
show gill slits, tails
and two-chambered
hearts.
Do you see many
differences among
the embryos during
their early embryo
stages?
Similarities in Biochemistry
Similarities in the body chemicals
(biochemistry) of living things, such as DNA,
hormones, and enzymes, show a close
relationship between various forms of life.
Organisms that are closely related, like the cat
and the lion, have a greater similarity in their
protein structure.
Greater differences in cell biochemistry are
thought to show a lesser evolutionary
relationship.
Examples
of
Evolution





The ancient ancestor of the horse, was about the size of a fox. It
had four toes on its front feet and three toes on its hind feet.
The horse gradually got bigger and the length of its feet
increased.
As time passed, some of the toes disappeared, until today the
modern horse is one-toes.
The middle toe is the one that remains, but the horse retains tiny
splints of two other toes.
The skull grew longer and the teeth became flat-topped.
Examples of Evolution




The ancestor of the present
elephant was the size of a
pig and had no tusks.
Over time, the size of the
elephant’s body and head
increased tremendously.
The two upper incisor teeth
increased in size and length
and gradually developed
into tusks.
The early trunk was much
shorter than the trunk of
today’s elephant.
Evolution In Our Time
Staphylococcus bacteria
When the antibiotic was
first used, this bacteria
had genes that made
them resistant to antibiotics.
 When the use of antibiotics
became widespread, these
genes increased in numbers,
producing a population of
bacteria that was not killed
by antibiotics.

Evolution In Our Time
Today, scientists continuously develop new
antibiotics because the bacteria population mutates
and produces new antibiotic-resistant strains.
 Mutations are not caused by environmental
change. Mutations occur randomly.
 Mutations with positive survival value allow
organisms to be better adapted to their
environment.
 The environment selects those variations, or
adaptations, that may have survival value.

Evolution in Our Time
English Peppered Moth




Peppered moths have two basic colors: light color with
dark markings or dark color with light markings.
Before the industrial revolution, most peppered moths
were light colored. This enabled them to blend with
their light-colored environment, such as the trunks of
trees and the side of buildings.
By blending with the environment,
the light-colored moths were
almost invisible.
Insect eating birds could
not see them.
Evolution in Our Time




The soot and other air pollutants from the industrial
revolution gradually changed the environment
from light to dark.
The light-colored moths became visible and were
eaten by birds.
The dark-colored moths could not be seen against the dark
background. These moths reproduced more dark
moths and the population shifted
from light to dark-colored.
Recently, as a result of
environmental pollution laws,
the moth population is slowly
changing back to
light-colored moths.
Evolution in Our Time
Artificial Selection
Sometimes plant and animal breeders purposely
modify organisms by mating plants and animals that
have certain desirable traits.
 By selective breeding, man may cause evolution
 Example: racehorses and greyhounds have been
produced that are faster than their predecessors.

Geographic Isolation
Occurs when a population is physically separated into
smaller populations by geographic barriers.

Mountain ranges, deserts, oceans, rivers, other bodies of
water, big expressways, or shopping malls.
Changes may occur in these separated populations
that, over a long period of time may result in the
production of different species.

The production of a new species is known as speciation.
Reproductive isolation occurs when members of the
isolated population and the main populations can no
longer interbreed, even if the barriers are removed.
Adaptive Radiation
The process by which many new species
of organisms evolve from a common ancestor.
The new species evolve and fill different
environmental
niches where
there is less
competition.
Adaptive Radiation
Organisms move into new niches in the
environment through chance mutations that
have positive adaptive value.
A positive adaptation would be one that allows
an organism to live successfully in a new niche.

If there is little competition in the niche, the
organism has a better chance to survive and
reproduce.
Rate of Change
Gradualism
A theory that evolutionary change is slow,
gradual, and continuous.
New species would arise by the very
gradual collection of minor changes in a
population.
Rate of Change
Punctuated Equilibrium
A theory that species are relatively stable for long
periods of time (several million years).
This stability is interrupted by brief periods during
which major changes occur.

These changes result in the evolution of new species.
The minor changes that occur in a population over
time might produce new varieties of an existing
species, but not a new species.
Heterotroph Hypothesis
This theory, proposed by A.I. Oparin in the late
1930’s, stated that groups of organic molecules
were formed from the chemical elements in the
Earth’s primitive ocean.
These organic molecules combined, using
energy from heat, lightning, solar radiation, and
radioactive materials in the rocks.
The first living things were thought to be
heterotrophs.

Since no free oxygen gas existed in the
atmosphere, these forms of life carried on
anaerobic respiration.
Heterotroph Hypothesis
They used the free organic molecules in the
sea for food.
Over time, genetic changes occurred in the
first organisms.
As a result of the genetic changes,
photosynthetic forms of life evolved.
These organisms, autotrophs, released
oxygen into the atmosphere.
Aerobic forms of life evolved from the
anaerobic forms.
Human Evolution
Darwin only suggested that humans, along
with other mammals, could have shared a
common ancestor.
Human Fossil Sites
Some human-like
fossil forms have been
discovered.
Their exact place in
human ancestry has yet
to be determined.
Out of Africa Theory
Human Evolution
Modern scientists assume that human
evolution, like evolution in other animals,
is continuing.
Because of their superior reasoning ability,
humans are able to control their environment.
Because of this, the evolutionary effect of
natural selection is not as great as in other
organisms.
Factors That May Affect Human Evolution
Medical Knowledge
Permits the survival of individuals with genetic
traits such as diabetes, hemophilia, and PKU.
 Without medical knowledge these people would
die and the genes for these diseases would
decrease in number in the population.
 With modern medicine the number of genes are
maintained or increased.

Modern Transportation

Humans are less affected by the evolutionary
force of geographic isolation.
Factors That May Affect Human Evolution
Advanced Technology
Gives humans better nutrition and greater control
over their reproductive process.
 It has also increased the number and kinds of
mutagenic agents in the environment.

Genetic Engineering

May possibly lead to the appearance of new traits
and the elimination of others.