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Transcript
Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution CHAPTER 21 The Mechanisms of Evolution Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Charles Darwin and Adaptation Genetic Variation within Populations The Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium Microevolution: Changes in the Genetic Structure of Populations Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Studying Microevolution Maintaining Genetic Variation How Do Genotypes Determine Phenotypes? Constraints on Evolution Short-Term versus Long-Term Evolution Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Charles Darwin and Adaptation • Darwin developed his theory of evolution by natural selection by carefully observing nature, especially during his voyage around the world. 4 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Charles Darwin and Adaptation • Darwin based his theory on well-known facts and some key inferences. 5 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Charles Darwin and Adaptation • Darwin had no examples of the action of natural selection, so he based his arguments on artificial selection by plant and animal breeders. 6 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Charles Darwin and Adaptation • Modern genetics has elucidated the mechanisms of heredity, which have provided the solid base that supports and substantiates Darwin’s theory. 7 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Genetic Variation within Populations • A single individual has only some of the alleles found in the population of which it is a member. Review Figure 21.3 8 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.3 Figure 21.3 figure 21-03.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Genetic Variation within Populations • Genetic variation characterizes nearly all natural populations. Review Figures 21.4, 21.5 10 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.4 Figure 21.4 figure 21-04.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.5 Figure 21.5 figure 21-05.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Genetic Variation within Populations • Allele frequencies measure the amount of genetic variation in a population. • Genotype frequencies show how a population’s genetic variation is distributed among its members. 13 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Genetic Variation within Populations • Biologists estimate allele frequencies by measuring a sample of individuals from a population. • The sum of all allele frequencies at a locus is equal to 1. Review Figure 21.6 14 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.6 Figure 21.6 figure 21-06.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Genetic Variation within Populations • Populations that have the same allele frequencies may have different genotype frequencies. 16 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution The Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium • A population that is not changing genetically is said to be at Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. 17 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution The Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium • The assumptions that underlie the Hardy– Weinberg equilibrium are: population is large mating is random no migration mutation can be ignored natural selection is not acting on the population. 18 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution The Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium • In a population at Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, allele frequencies remain the same from generation to generation, and genotype frequencies remain in the proportions p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1. Review Figure 21.7 19 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.7 Figure 21.7 figure 21-07.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution The Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium • Biologists can determine whether an agent of evolution is acting on a population by comparing the population’s genotype frequencies with Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium frequencies. 21 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Microevolution: Changes in the Genetic Structure of Populations • Changes in allele frequencies and genotype frequencies within populations are caused by several evolutionary agents: mutation gene flow random genetic drift assortative mating natural selection. 22 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Microevolution: Changes in the Genetic Structure of Populations • The origin of genetic variation is mutation. • Most are harmful or neutral to bearers, but some are advantageous, particularly if the environment changes. 23 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Microevolution: Changes in the Genetic Structure of Populations • Migration of individuals among populations followed by breeding produces gene flow; immigrants may add new alleles or change the frequencies of alleles already present. 24 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Microevolution: Changes in the Genetic Structure of Populations • Random genetic drift alters allele frequencies in all populations, but overrides natural selection only in small ones. • Organisms of normally large populations may pass through periods (bottlenecks) when only a small number of individuals survive. Review Figure 21.8 25 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.8 Figure 21.8 figure 21-08.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Microevolution: Changes in the Genetic Structure of Populations • New populations established by a few founding individuals also have gene frequencies that differ from those in the parent population. Review Figure 21.10 27 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.10 Figure 21.10 figure 21-10.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Microevolution: Changes in the Genetic Structure of Populations • If individuals mate more often with individuals bearing the same or different genotypes than would be expected on a random basis, frequencies of homozygous and heterozygous genotypes differ from Hardy–Weinberg expectations. Review Figure 21.11 29 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.11 Figure 21.11 figure 21-11.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Microevolution: Changes in the Genetic Structure of Populations • Self-fertilization reduces the frequencies of heterozygous individuals below Hardy– Weinberg expectations without changing allele frequencies. 31 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Microevolution: Changes in the Genetic Structure of Populations • Natural selection is the only evolutionary agent that adapts populations to their environments, and may preserve allele frequencies or cause them to change with time. 32 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Microevolution: Changes in the Genetic Structure of Populations • Stabilizing, directional, and disruptive selection change the distributions of phenotypes governed by more than one locus. Review Figures 21.12, 21.13, 21.14 33 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.12 Figure 21.12 figure 21-12.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.13 Figure 21.13 figure 21-13.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution figure 21-14.jpg Figure 21.14 Figure 21.14 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Studying Microevolution • Biologists study microevolution by measuring natural selection in the field, experimentally altering organisms, and building computer models. Review Figures 21.15, 21.16 37 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.15 Figure 21.15 figure 21-15.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.16 Figure 21.16 figure 21-16.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Maintaining Genetic Variation • Random genetic drift, stabilizing selection, and directional selection all tend to reduce genetic variation, but most populations are genetically highly variable. 40 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Maintaining Genetic Variation • Sexual reproduction generates an endless variety of genotypic combinations that increases evolutionary potential of populations, but does not influence frequencies of alleles. • Rather, it generates new combinations of genetic material on which natural selection can act. 41 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Maintaining Genetic Variation • Much genetic variation within many species is maintained in distinct subpopulations. Review Figure 21.17 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.17 Figure 21.17 figure 21-17.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Maintaining Genetic Variation • Genetic variation within a population may be maintained by frequency-dependent selection. Review Figure 21.18 44 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.18 Figure 21.18 figure 21-18.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution How Do Genotypes Determine Phenotypes? • Genotypes do not uniquely determine phenotypes. • A given phenotype can be produced by more than one genotype. 46 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution How Do Genotypes Determine Phenotypes? • An organism’s phenotype is the result of a complex series of developmental processes influenced by environmental factors and genes. Review Figures 21.19 47 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Figure 21.19 Figure 21.19 figure 21-19.jpg Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Constraints on Evolution • Natural selection acts by modifying what already exists. • A population cannot get temporarily worse in order to achieve some long-term advantage. 49 Chapter 21: The Mechanisms of Evolution Short-Term versus Long-Term Evolution • Patterns of macroevolutionary change can be strongly influenced by infrequent or slowly occuring events unlikely to be observed during microevolutionary studies. • Additional evidence is needed to understand why evolution took a particular course. 50